Nature Knows Nootropics

Key points

Intermittent fasting can help with weight loss, reduce inflammation, and enhance overall health.

Brain health may also improve with intermittent fasting.

Some other possible benefits include lower fasting glucose levels and improved blood pressure.

Every New Year, many people create resolutions for what they hope to accomplish in the coming 12 months. For some, it is “Dry January”; for others, it is a decision to lose weight. The federal Centers for Disease Control estimates over 30 percent of the U.S. population is overweight. National Institute of Health statistics show that 42 percent of adults are obese; more worrisome, 10 percent are severely obese. Unhealthy weight is a risk factor for many medical illnesses, including heart disease and stroke.

As with all good intentions, success is not always achievable: 95 percent of diets fail. Most diets focus on what you should or should not eat, but intermittent fasting (IF) does not restrict specific foods. Instead, it focuses on when you eat. Our prehistoric ancestors hunted for game or foraged for food to survive. These are time-consuming endeavors. According to Johns Hopkins neuroscientist Mark Mattson, our bodies evolved from this, so we can go for long periods without eating.

Before the internet became popular, many people went to bed after the evening news, which usually ended around 11 p.m. Earlier generations were not staying up late, focused on their screens and snacking into the night, so it was easier to maintain a healthy weight. Children and adults also spent more time outdoors engaging in physical activity. Since the advent of smartphones, children spend less time outside playing with friends, and there is a concurrent epidemic of childhood obesity. How Does Intermittent Fasting Work?

There are many options for intermittent fasting. A daily approach means restricting your calorie intake to eight hours and fasting the other 16. This is pretty reasonable—those who like breakfast can start eating at 8 or 9 a.m. and finish by 4 or 5 p.m. For those who would prefer not to have such an early evening meal, breakfast can be adjusted so that it begins at 10 a.m. and dinner is finished by 6 p.m.

A different plan is called the 5:2 approach. This means that you eat regularly for five days per week, and the other two are restricted to one 500-to-600-calorie meal. Some choose to fast completely for 24 hours several days per week, but most nutritionists and doctors who practice weight loss medicine do not support this option. Doing this may cause your metabolism to shut down because your body believes you are starving and tries to preserve your fat stores.

As with any new habit, it will take some time for you to adjust. You may feel hungry, cranky, or tired for the first few weeks, but most people can adapt readily after that. Over time, many find intermittent fasting provides multiple health benefits, including weight loss. Research shows that people who practice intermittent fasting have improved blood pressure, enhanced fat loss, lower fasting glucose levels, and improved memory . What Does Intermittent Fasting Do for Your Brain?

One study showed that older adults with mild cognitive impairment who were placed on an IF schedule produced less oxidative damage to their organs, including their brains. Oxidative damage results from molecules produced as by-products of normal cell metabolism and increases with age. It can lead to mutations and breaks in DNA strands, which puts us at risk for cancer and other genetic disorders. This is one reason that cancer risk increases with age.

Some studies suggest that IF may promote the growth of new nerve cells in the area of your brain called the hippocampus, which is involved in learning and memory. Additionally, when you fast, you can increase your level of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a protein that supports the growth of new nerve cells. This may improve cognitive function and the ability to learn new things and enhance memory.

Inflammation occurs in the body when it perceives an invader or threat. Common causes include infection, injury, or chronic illness , such as autoimmune disorders. Intermittent fasting can decrease inflammation. This is particularly important for brain health because chronic brain inflammation is linked to several neurological disorders, including Parkinson’s, Alzheimer’s, and multiple sclerosis.

During fasting, your cells undergo autophagy, a process that removes and recycles damaged cellular components. Think of this as taking out the trash. It prevents your brain from accumulating cellular debris that can cause age-related degeneration and disease.

Animal studies show that intermittent fasting can reduce the number of amyloid plaques in the brain. These areas are associated with the development of Alzheimer’s disease in humans. In animal models of Parkinson’s disease, IF appears to protect brain cells from degeneration and improve function.

Research results on fasting and mood are mixed. A small 2018 study looked at mood changes after a 72-hour fast in 15 healthy women compared with those of the same age who had not fasted. The researchers found that those who fasted experienced increased sadness, difficulty making decisions, and self-blaming. However, a more extensive 2022 study focusing on people with existing depression investigated the use of fasting as a treatment option. The researchers found that fasting led to a reduction in symptoms in those who experienced moderate to severe depression. Is Intermittent Fasting for You?

If you do not have health restrictions, such as insulin-dependent diabetes or an active eating disorder , are not pregnant or breastfeeding, and don’t take medication that requires you to eat with your dose, you can probably try time-restricted fasting. Remember that even though you eat within a reduced period, you cannot go wild with your calorie consumption. Some doctors report the loss of lean muscle in their patients who choose this type of eating. Lean muscle mass is critical for keeping up your metabolic rate (muscle burns more calories than fat), regulating your blood sugar, and maintaining overall wellness (improved muscle mass protects your brain). So, in addition to trying time-restricted eating, participate in activities that support […]

Read more at www.psychologytoday.com

January 1, 2025

Article origination NPR Service

“Brain rot” is the Oxford word of the year for 2024, and it’s pretty much what it sounds like: a perceived mental decline from consuming too much online media. If just reading that definition has you worried about your gray matter, never fear! Researchers are finding promising — and surprising — ways to boost our brain health and de-stress our minds. Here are nine stories on the topic that engaged our readers this year. 1. Writing by hand beats typing for learning and memory

Yes, typing is usually much faster than writing by hand. But increasingly studies are finding deep brain benefits when we write out letters and words by hand. For kids, it can improve letter recognition and learning; and when adults take notes by hand it can lead to better conceptual understanding of material.

Brain imaging studies suggest it has to do with the fine-tuned coordination required between motor and visual systems, which deeply engages the brain. Some artists even say writing by hand stokes their creativity. So if you’re feeling stuck — try jotting down your idea with pen and paper. A woman writing with a pen Ivan-balvan / Getty Images/iStockphoto 2. Your gut microbes can affect your mood

Can what you eat make you more resilient to stress? Maybe! A recent analysis found that the guts of people who handled stress better shared two patterns: Their microbiomes had more anti-inflammatory microbes and they had a strong “gut barrier,” which keeps toxins and pathogens out of the bloodstream.

Scientists already know that our gut and brain talk to each other. (In fact the gut produces about 90% of serotonin and about 50% of dopamine.) So will eating fermented foods like kimchi or yogurt or taking probiotic supplements help you stay chill?

It’s not that simple, scientists say, because the gut microbiome is a complex ecosystem. Still, researchers are working on identifying biomarkers in gut bacteria that someday could help tailor decisions on how to use existing therapies — or develop new treatments. Learn more about microbes and mental health. An illustration of the human microbiome. The bacteria in our gut may influence our mental health, research finds. MEHAU KULYK/Getty Images / Science Photo Library RF 3. Working late in young adulthood may lead to depression and poor health in middle age

Your body already knows this: When you sacrifice sleep for work, it can take a toll on your mental health. Now research is finding that specifically working nights and rotating shift schedules can leave people susceptible to depression and poor health.

Work is supposed to bring in income to support us, says researcher Wen-Jui Han, but many people are working themselves sick, and becoming “more and more miserable over time.”

About 16% of American workers worked outside daytime hours in 2019; Black men and women with limited education disproportionately carry the burden of these shifts. Han says she hopes the study prompts more conversations about how to better support people to live happy and healthy lives. Here’s more on the link between shift work and depression. 4. About 40% of dementia cases could be prevented or delayed by improving daily habits

When it comes to a healthy lifestyles, little changes can go a long way. Research is increasingly finding we may be able to reduce our risk for dementia. Tweaks to our sleep, diet, social lives and exercise habits all add up. Even people who have genetic risk factors can benefit.

Now scientists have created an online tool — the Brain Care Score — to help people gauge and track risks to their brain health. ( You can check your score here .)

One recent study found that each 5-point increase in a brain care score was associated with a 27% lower composite risk of dementia, stroke and depression.

“What was surprising to us was just how powerful it was,” says Dr. Kevin Sheth, director of Yale University’s Center for Brain and Mind Health and a co-author of the study. Sheth says the findings have led him to tweak some of his own habits — he’s swapped sugary desserts for fruit at some meals, and added more leafy greens to his diet. Get started boosting your brain health. 5. Talking to your “parts” can help you deal with stress, and maybe change your life

Maria Fabrizio for NPR / Ever felt paralyzed by stress? Worn down by that inner voice critiquing your choices? A therapeutic approach called Internal Family Systems, or IFS, is growing in popularity. It’s based on the idea that each of us has multiple parts or perspectives inside us — for example, people may have an inner critic, a worrier, a protector. The method involves learning to embrace all your parts, treat them with compassion and figure out what they may be telling you.

Some patients have called it “life-changing.” While some therapists say the evidence isn’t there yet, some small studies show IFS can benefit people with specific issues including PTSD, stress and depression. And more research is underway.

An increasing number of therapists are trained in IFS, but you can try getting to know your “internal family” on your own. Start here. 6. Weight training can help with anxiety and depression (among other things)

Strength training is good for your bones, your joints, your heart — and now it turns out, it benefits your mood, too. An analysis of more than 30 clinical trials found people who did strength training at least two to three times a week had a reduction of symptoms of depression. And other research found it can reduce anxiety, too.

And a little goes a long way. While it’s increasingly common to see female weightlifters on social media, women don’t have to become bodybuilders to see the benefits. A recent study finds women need to do less exercise than men to change their baseline of both aerobic and muscular strength. If lifting weights at the gym isn’t your thing, try exercises using resistance bands or using your own […]

Read more at www.wfyi.org

About 40% of dementia cases could be delayed or prevented by addressing 14 modifiable risk factors, according to a Lancet commission report. “Brain rot” is the Oxford word of the year for 2024, and it’s pretty much what it sounds like: a perceived mental decline from consuming too much online media. If just reading that definition has you worried about your gray matter, never fear! Researchers are finding promising — and surprising — ways to boost our brain health and de-stress our minds. Here are nine stories on the topic that engaged our readers this year. 1. Writing by hand beats typing for learning and memory

Yes, typing is usually much faster than writing by hand. But increasingly studies are finding deep brain benefits when we write out letters and words by hand. For kids, it can improve letter recognition and learning; and when adults take notes by hand it can lead to better conceptual understanding of material.

Brain imaging studies suggest it has to do with the fine-tuned coordination required between motor and visual systems, which deeply engages the brain. Some artists even say writing by hand stokes their creativity. So if you’re feeling stuck — try jotting down your idea with pen and paper. Ivan-balvan / Getty Images/iStockphoto / Getty Images/iStockphoto 2. Your gut microbes can affect your mood

Can what you eat make you more resilient to stress? Maybe! A recent analysis found that the guts of people who handled stress better shared two patterns: Their microbiomes had more anti-inflammatory microbes and they had a strong “gut barrier,” which keeps toxins and pathogens out of the bloodstream.

Scientists already know that our gut and brain talk to each other. (In fact the gut produces about 90% of serotonin and about 50% of dopamine.) So will eating fermented foods like kimchi or yogurt or taking probiotic supplements help you stay chill?

It’s not that simple, scientists say, because the gut microbiome is a complex ecosystem. Still, researchers are working on identifying biomarkers in gut bacteria that someday could help tailor decisions on how to use existing therapies — or develop new treatments. Learn more about microbes and mental health. An illustration of the human microbiome. The bacteria in our gut may influence our mental health, research finds. 3. Working late in young adulthood may lead to depression and poor health in middle age

Your body already knows this: When you sacrifice sleep for work, it can take a toll on your mental health. Now research is finding that specifically working nights and rotating shift schedules can leave people susceptible to depression and poor health.

Work is supposed to bring in income to support us, says researcher Wen-Jui Han, but many people are working themselves sick, and becoming “more and more miserable over time.”

About 16% of American workers worked outside daytime hours in 2019; Black men and women with limited education disproportionately carry the burden of these shifts. Han says she hopes the study prompts more conversations about how to better support people to live happy and healthy lives. Here’s more on the link between shift work and depression. 4. About 40% of dementia cases could be prevented or delayed by improving daily habits

When it comes to a healthy lifestyles, little changes can go a long way. Research is increasingly finding we may be able to reduce our risk for dementia. Tweaks to our sleep, diet, social lives and exercise habits all add up. Even people who have genetic risk factors can benefit.

Now scientists have created an online tool — the Brain Care Score — to help people gauge and track risks to their brain health. ( You can check your score here .)

One recent study found that each 5-point increase in a brain care score was associated with a 27% lower composite risk of dementia, stroke and depression.

“What was surprising to us was just how powerful it was,” says Dr. Kevin Sheth, director of Yale University’s Center for Brain and Mind Health and a co-author of the study. Sheth says the findings have led him to tweak some of his own habits — he’s swapped sugary desserts for fruit at some meals, and added more leafy greens to his diet. Get started boosting your brain health. 5. Talking to your “parts” can help you deal with stress, and maybe change your life

Ever felt paralyzed by stress? Worn down by that inner voice critiquing your choices? A therapeutic approach called Internal Family Systems, or IFS, is growing in popularity. It’s based on the idea that each of us has multiple parts or perspectives inside us — for example, people may have an inner critic, a worrier, a protector. The method involves learning to embrace all your parts, treat them with compassion and figure out what they may be telling you.

Some patients have called it “life-changing.” While some therapists say the evidence isn’t there yet, some small studies show IFS can benefit people with specific issues including PTSD, stress and depression. And more research is underway.

An increasing number of therapists are trained in IFS, but you can try getting to know your “internal family” on your own. Start here. 6. Weight training can help with anxiety and depression (among other things)

Strength training is good for your bones, your joints, your heart — and now it turns out, it benefits your mood, too. An analysis of more than 30 clinical trials found people who did strength training at least two to three times a week had a reduction of symptoms of depression. And other research found it can reduce anxiety, too.

And a little goes a long way. While it’s increasingly common to see female weightlifters on social media, women don’t have to become bodybuilders to see the benefits. A recent study finds women need to do less exercise than men to change their baseline of both aerobic and muscular strength. If lifting weights at the gym isn’t your thing, try exercises using resistance bands or using your own body […]

Read more at health.wusf.usf.edu

Research has found that deep sleep is crucial for the formation of memories. Amor Burakova/Stocksy Getting enough sleep is an important part of a person’s overall health.

Poor sleep is a risk factor for cognitive issues such as memory loss.

Researchers from Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin have clarified what happens during deep sleep — also known as slow wave sleep — to support the formation of memories in the brain.

The study adds to evidence showing sleep’s crucial role in memory consolidation, and may help scientists come up with preventive strategies against dementia.

Everyone knows that getting enough sleep is an important part of a person’s overall health.

Past studies show proper sleep can help improve a person’s heart health , supports their immune system , and helps reduce stress , just to name a few.

Sleep is also important for brain health , as poor sleep is a risk factor for cognitive issues such as memory loss .

“Depriving humans of sleep leads to all sorts of problems and can cause serious harm,” Franz Xaver Mittermaier , scientific staff member of the Institute of Neurophysiology at Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin in Germany, told Medical News Today .

“It is fair to argue that the organ that needs sleep the most is the brain. Sleep disconnects the brain from the outside world. The stream of sensory information is stopped. This allows for the replay of past experiences without ‘outside interference’ which is necessary to consolidate the memories of these experiences — i.e. move them into the long-term memory,” he said.

Mittermaier is the first author of a new study recently published in the journal Nature Communications that provides an explanation of how deep sleep — also known as slow wave sleep — helps support the formation of memories in the brain.

For this study, Mittermaier and his team used intact tissue samples of the neocortex — part of the cerebral cortex of the brain — taken from 45 study participants. “The neocortex is the outermost part of the brain. Whenever we see a picture of the brain, the surface that we look at is the neocortex — the walnut-shaped surface. It is a structure that contains 16 billion neurons (electrically active brain cells). The neocortex is greatly enlarged in humans and plays a central role for the cognitive abilities that make us human: language, imagination, memory, emotion, etc.”
— Franz Xaver Mittermaier “In 2017, we started to develop a platform, where we collect brain samples from neurosurgeries that would otherwise be discarded,” Mittermaier said. “We managed to improve our methods to keep these tissue samples alive for more than 24 in physiological solutions. This allows us to study human brain cells and connections between them ( synapses ) with high-end, high-resolution recording methods.”

“Once we had the ability to perform these recordings, memory mechanisms were a topic that was just very obvious to address. Prof. Geiger and Henrik Alle — a co-author of the current study — had published a Science magazine paper in 2006, where they identified some interesting synaptic mechanisms. These mechanisms were our starting point and the project developed from there,” he explained.

At the conclusion of the study, researchers found that the slow electrical waves created in the brain during deep sleep help to strengthen the synaptic connections between neurons in the neocortex, making it more “receptive” to forming memories.

“During deep slow-wave sleep, when the sensory stream from the outside world stops, the neocortex displays a very interesting activity that consists of UP- and DOWN-states that alternate approximately once per second,” Mittermaier explained. “UP- and DOWN-states result from synchronous changes in electrical voltage of many thousands of neurons in the neocortex.”

“We could show with our experiments that these UP- and DOWN-state sequences actually tune the synapses (i.e. the connections) between the brain cells and make (them) particularly strong when the neocortex changes from a DOWN-state to an UP-state,” he continued.

“The neocortex is put in a state of increased receptivity to information during that time-window. If the hippocampus — region of the brain that stores short-term memories — plays back a memory during this time-window, it leads to a more pronounced activation of neocortical brain cells, which in turn leads to a transfer into long-term storage,” he told MNT. “We are only beginning to scratch the surface of the mechanisms that are actually at play when the brain sleeps. Furthermore, much of the research thus far has been in laboratory animals and not in human tissue samples (as in our study). We have lots of work to do to really understand the sleeping human brain. Our study is only the beginning. Understanding the sleeping brain will help us tackle disorders, such as memory impairment in the elderly.”
— Franz Xaver Mittermaier MNT spoke with Verna Porter, MD , a board certified neurologist and director of the Dementia, Alzheimer’s Disease and Neurocognitive Disorders at Pacific Neuroscience Institute at Providence Saint John’s Health Center in Santa Monica, CA, who commented this study was both exciting and thought-provoking as it sheds light on the crucial role of slow wave activity (SWA) during deep sleep in synaptic plasticity and memory consolidation.

“The ability of SWA to strengthen synapses and stabilize memories at a precise, cellular level is particularly interesting,” Porter explained. “For me, as a neurologist, this reinforces the critical importance of healthy sleep patterns in maintaining cognitive function. Given that patients with dementia often experience disrupted deep sleep, these findings underscore the need to better understand and address sleep deficits as part of dementia care and prevention.”
— Verna Porter, MD “The next steps should focus on determining how SWA-driven synaptic mechanisms are altered in neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer’s and other forms of dementia. Longitudinal studies are needed to assess whether enhancing deep sleep can slow cognitive decline or improve memory retention in at-risk populations,” she continued.

MNT also spoke with Manisha Parulekar, MD, FACP, AGSF, CMD , director of the Division of Geriatrics at Hackensack University Medical Center and co-director of the Center for Memory Loss […]

Read more at www.medicalnewstoday.com

A UCL-led study suggests the short-term cognitive boost from exercise can last into the next day, especially with sufficient deep sleep. Moderate-to-vigorous activity and quality sleep improve memory and reaction times, while more sedentary behavior harms memory. Exercise improves cognitive performance for over 24 hours, especially when paired with good sleep. A study of older adults links physical activity and deep sleep to better memory, highlighting the importance of an active lifestyle for brain health.

Exercise provides a short-term boost to brain function that can last throughout the next day, according to a new study by researchers at University College London (UCL) .

Earlier research conducted in controlled laboratory settings revealed that cognitive performance improves in the hours following exercise. However, the duration of these benefits remained unclear.

The new study, published in the International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity , found that adults aged 50 to 83 performed better on memory tests the day after engaging in more moderate to vigorous physical activity than usual.

Less time spent sitting and six hours or more of sleep were also linked to better scores in memory tests the next day.

More deep (slow-wave) sleep, named for the characteristic brain waves observed during this restorative stage where heart rate slows and blood pressure decreases, also contributed to memory function. The research team found this accounted for a small portion of the link between exercise and better next-day memory.

The research team looked at data from 76 men and women who wore activity trackers for eight days and took cognitive tests each day. Key Insights from the Researchers

Lead author Dr. Mikaela Bloomberg (UCL Institute of Epidemiology & Health Care) said: “Our findings suggest that the short-term memory benefits of physical activity may last longer than previously thought, possibly to the next day instead of just the few hours after exercise. Getting more sleep, particularly deep sleep, seems to add to this memory improvement.

“Moderate or vigorous activity means anything that gets your heart rate up – this could be brisk walking, dancing, or walking up a few flights of stairs. It doesn’t have to be a structured exercise.

“This was a small study and so it needs to be replicated with a larger sample of participants before we can be certain about the results.”

In the short term, exercise increases blood flow to the brain and stimulates the release of neurotransmitters such as norepinephrine and dopamine which help a range of cognitive functions.

These neurochemical changes are understood to last up to a few hours after exercise. However, the researchers noted that other brain states linked to exercise were more long-lasting. For instance, evidence suggests exercise can enhance mood for up to 24 hours.

A previous study, published by a separate research team in 2016, also found more synchronized activity in the hippocampus (a marker of increased hippocampal function, which facilitates memory function) for 48 hours after high-intensity interval training (HIIT) cycling. Broader Implications for Cognitive Health

Co-author Professor Andrew Steptoe (UCL Institute of Epidemiology & Health Care) said: “Among older adults, maintaining cognitive function is important for good quality of life, wellbeing, and independence. It’s therefore helpful to identify factors that can affect cognitive health on a day-to-day basis.

“This study provides evidence that the immediate cognitive benefits of exercise may last longer than we thought. It also suggests good sleep quality separately contributes to cognitive performance.

“However, we can’t establish from this study whether these short-term boosts to cognitive performance contribute to longer-term cognitive health and though there is plenty of evidence to suggest physical activity might slow cognitive decline and reduce dementia risk, it’s still a matter of some debate.”

For the new study, the researchers looked at data from wrist-worn activity trackers to determine how much time participants spent being sedentary, doing light physical activity, and doing moderate or vigorous physical activity. They also quantified sleep duration and time spent in lighter (rapid eye movement, or REM) sleep and deeper, slow-wave sleep.

In looking at the links between different types of activity and next-day cognitive performance, the research team adjusted for a wide variety of factors that might have distorted the results, including the amount of moderate or vigorous physical activity that participants did on the day of the tests.

They also accounted for participants’ average levels of activity and sleep quality across the eight days they were tracked, as participants who are habitually more active and typically have higher-quality sleep perform better in cognitive tests.

The team found that more moderate or vigorous physical activity compared to a person’s average was linked to better working memory and episodic memory (memory of events) the next day. More sleep overall was linked to improved episodic and working memory and psychomotor speed (a measure of how quickly a person detects and responds to the environment). More slow-wave sleep was linked to better episodic memory.

Conversely, more time spent being sedentary than usual was linked to worse working memory the next day.

The study is among the first to evaluate next-day cognitive performance using a “micro-longitudinal” study design where participants were tracked going about their normal lives rather than having to stay in a lab.

Among the study limitations, the researchers noted that the participants were a cognitively healthy group, meaning the results might not be true for people who have neurocognitive disorders.

Reference: “Associations of accelerometer-measured physical activity, sedentary behaviour, and sleep with next-day cognitive performance in older adults: a micro-longitudinal study” by Mikaela Bloomberg, Laura Brocklebank, Aiden Doherty, Mark Hamer and Andrew Steptoe, 10 December 2024, International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity .
DOI: 10.1186/s12966-024-01683-7

The study involved researchers from the UCL Institute of Epidemiology & Health Care, UCL Division of Surgery & Interventional Science, and the University of Oxford, and received funding from the UK’s Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC).

Read more at scitechdaily.com

Key points

Cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) is linked to brain health and cognition.

Aerobic exercise boosts memory, executive function, and mental acuity.

The cognitive benefits of CRF become more important as we age.

Cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) or “cardiofitness” helps us live longer, healthier lives . It’s also linked to better brain health and sharper thinking as we age. Mountains of science-backed evidence suggest that doing at least 150 minutes of cardio per week is key to mens sana in corpore sano (a sound mind in a sound body), especially after age 60.

In November 2024, a meta-analysis of 33 studies involving about 2 million older adults ( Martinez-Gomez et al., 2024 ) found that the benefits of staying physically active grow exponentially later in life.

Whereas doing cardio has many benefits for younger people, the link between reduced all-cause mortality and aerobic exercise appears to get stronger in older adulthood. Similarly, the benefits of aerobic fitness also have a greater impact on cognition in late adulthood.

A December 2024 “IGNITE” study ( Oberlin et al., 2024 ) on the link between CRF and cognitive function in late adulthood found that higher levels of cardiorespiratory fitness are associated with improved cognitive performance across five domains vulnerable to age-related decline.

Notably, the IGNITE study highlights that the exercise-induced cognitive benefits associated with cardiofitness were also observed in older adults carrying APOE4 genes , which typically indicate a higher risk of developing Alzheimer’s disease and dementia .

The recent findings from Oberlin et al. corroborate other neuroscience -based evidence linking higher fitness levels with elevated neurocognitive function and sharper mental acuity regardless of APOE4 carrier status ( Chang et al. 2024 ).

In addition to the latest (2024) findings, other studies over the past few decades have found a strong correlation between higher CRF levels and better executive function and memory performance after midlife .

Read on to learn more about five cognitive domains that benefit from higher cardiorespiratory fitness levels and 15 mechanisms of action that might explain why doing cardio boosts brain power in older adulthood. 5 Cognitive Domains Aerobic Fitness Enhances

The IGNITE study examined the relationship between cardiorespiratory fitness and cognitive function in older adults, focusing on five key cognitive domains. Researchers assessed 347 participants aged 65–85 using VO₂ max testing on a treadmill to measure CRF and conducted comprehensive neuropsychological evaluations to analyze cognitive performance.

The study found that higher CRF was strongly correlated with better performance across the five cognitive domains described below: Executive Function/Attentional Control: A collection of higher-order processes that support goal-directed behavior, including planning, problem-solving, impulse inhibition, and task switching. Controlled attention helps us stay focused and resist distractions.

Processing Speed: The ability to rapidly perceive, interpret, and respond to information. It reflects how efficiently the brain handles tasks by assessing reaction times and how long it takes to complete basic or complex tasks.

Episodic Memory: The capacity to store and retrieve information about personal experiences, including the context of time, place, and related emotions. This domain is essential for recalling specific events and their associated details.

Working Memory: The ability to temporarily remember and manipulate information for reasoning, decision-making , and comprehension. It underpins executive functions and relies on a dynamic network of interconnected brain regions.

Visuospatial Function: The ability to perceive, process, and manipulate visual and spatial information. It supports skills such as object recognition, navigation, and understanding spatial relationships in three-dimensional environments.

The IGNITE study highlights the potential of regular aerobic exercise to preserve cognition and mitigate age-related cognitive decline , reinforcing the hypothesis that CRF is a modifiable factor for healthy brain aging within most people’s locus of control . 15 Ways Cardiofitness Can Boost Brain Power

While the precise neural mechanisms linking higher cardiorespiratory fitness to improved cognitive function in older adults remain complex, science has identified at least 15 evidence-based ways that cardio and enhanced CRF can boost brain power:

> Increased Cerebral Blood Flow : Aerobic exercise pushes oxygen-rich blood to the brain, enhancing cognitive performance. This boost in cerebral blood flow (CBF) supports vital nutrient delivery and waste removal.

Elevated Neurotrophic Factors : Cardio raises Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) levels, which supports neuronal growth, repair, and survival. Elevated BDNF is a key driver of neurogenesis and improved brain plasticity.

Enhanced Neuroplasticity : Regular aerobic activity strengthens the brain’s adaptability by fostering new neural connections and enhancing neuroplasticity. This process improves learning, memory, and resilience against brain aging.

Synaptogenesis: Cardio promotes the formation of new synapses, enhancing neural communication and optimizing processes like problem-solving and memory retention. Physical activity safeguards synapses as we age.

Reduced Oxidative Stress : By enhancing antioxidant defenses, exercise protects neurons from oxidative damage of free radicals, slowing cognitive decline and reducing neurodegenerative risks.

Grey Matter Preservation : Aerobic exercise helps maintain grey matter volume and “bigger brains,” which are critical for decision-making, memory, and emotion regulation , particularly in aging brains. White Matter Integrity : Cardio strengthens white matter pathways, facilitating fast and efficient communication between different brain regions by optimizing whole-brain connectivity. Stress Hormone Regulation : Exercise lowers cortisol levels, shielding the hippocampus from stress-related damage while supporting emotional stability . Inflammation Reduction : Physical activity reduces neuroinflammation, which contributes to cognitive decline and conditions like brain fog . Improved Neurotransmitter Balance : Aerobic workouts boost dopamine ( motivation ), serotonin (mood regulation), and acetylcholine (attention and learning), fostering optimal brain function. Vascular Health : Improved heart and vessel function in fit people reduces their risks of hypertension and stroke. It optimizes blood flow to the brain and sharpens the mind. Better Sleep Quality : Regular exercise enhances deep sleep and time spent in rapid eye movement (REM) sleep stages, leading to more vivid dreams , better memory consolidation, and healthier emotional processing. Promotes Happiness : Movement is medicine that supports psychological well-being. Doing cardio offsets depression and alleviates anxiety , creating a happier emotional state that indirectly supports cognitive health. More Energy, Less Fatigue : Cardio enhances energy levels by improving cardiovascular and mitochondrial function, promoting […]

Read more at www.psychologytoday.com

Key points

Cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) is linked to brain health and cognition.

Aerobic exercise boosts memory, executive function, and mental acuity.

The cognitive benefits of CRF become more important as we age.

Cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) or “cardiofitness” helps us live longer, healthier lives . It’s also linked to better brain health and sharper thinking as we age. Mountains of science-backed evidence suggest that doing at least 150 minutes of cardio per week is key to mens sana in corpore sano (a sound mind in a sound body), especially after age 60.

In November 2024, a meta-analysis of 33 studies involving about 2 million older adults ( Martinez-Gomez et al., 2024 ) found that the benefits of staying physically active grow exponentially later in life.

Whereas doing cardio has many benefits for younger people, the link between reduced all-cause mortality and aerobic exercise appears to get stronger in older adulthood. Similarly, the benefits of aerobic fitness also have a greater impact on cognition in late adulthood.

A December 2024 “IGNITE” study ( Oberlin et al., 2024 ) on the link between CRF and cognitive function in late adulthood found that higher levels of cardiorespiratory fitness are associated with improved cognitive performance across five domains vulnerable to age-related decline.

Notably, the IGNITE study highlights that the exercise-induced cognitive benefits associated with cardiofitness were also observed in older adults carrying APOE4 genes , which typically indicate a higher risk of developing Alzheimer’s disease and dementia .

The recent findings from Oberlin et al. corroborate other neuroscience -based evidence linking higher fitness levels with elevated neurocognitive function and sharper mental acuity regardless of APOE4 carrier status ( Chang et al. 2024 ).

In addition to the latest (2024) findings, other studies over the past few decades have found a strong correlation between higher CRF levels and better executive function and memory performance after midlife .

Read on to learn more about five cognitive domains that benefit from higher cardiorespiratory fitness levels and 15 mechanisms of action that might explain why doing cardio boosts brain power in older adulthood. 5 Cognitive Domains Aerobic Fitness Enhances

The IGNITE study examined the relationship between cardiorespiratory fitness and cognitive function in older adults, focusing on five key cognitive domains. Researchers assessed 347 participants aged 65–85 using VO₂ max testing on a treadmill to measure CRF and conducted comprehensive neuropsychological evaluations to analyze cognitive performance.

The study found that higher CRF was strongly correlated with better performance across the five cognitive domains described below: Executive Function/Attentional Control: A collection of higher-order processes that support goal-directed behavior, including planning, problem-solving, impulse inhibition, and task switching. Controlled attention helps us stay focused and resist distractions.

Processing Speed: The ability to rapidly perceive, interpret, and respond to information. It reflects how efficiently the brain handles tasks by assessing reaction times and how long it takes to complete basic or complex tasks.

Episodic Memory: The capacity to store and retrieve information about personal experiences, including the context of time, place, and related emotions. This domain is essential for recalling specific events and their associated details.

Working Memory: The ability to temporarily remember and manipulate information for reasoning, decision-making , and comprehension. It underpins executive functions and relies on a dynamic network of interconnected brain regions.

Visuospatial Function: The ability to perceive, process, and manipulate visual and spatial information. It supports skills such as object recognition, navigation, and understanding spatial relationships in three-dimensional environments.

The IGNITE study highlights the potential of regular aerobic exercise to preserve cognition and mitigate age-related cognitive decline , reinforcing the hypothesis that CRF is a modifiable factor for healthy brain aging within most people’s locus of control . 15 Ways Cardiofitness Can Boost Brain Power

While the precise neural mechanisms linking higher cardiorespiratory fitness to improved cognitive function in older adults remain complex, science has identified at least 15 evidence-based ways that cardio and enhanced CRF can boost brain power:

> Increased Cerebral Blood Flow : Aerobic exercise pushes oxygen-rich blood to the brain, enhancing cognitive performance. This boost in cerebral blood flow (CBF) supports vital nutrient delivery and waste removal.

Elevated Neurotrophic Factors : Cardio raises Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) levels, which supports neuronal growth, repair, and survival. Elevated BDNF is a key driver of neurogenesis and improved brain plasticity.

Enhanced Neuroplasticity : Regular aerobic activity strengthens the brain’s adaptability by fostering new neural connections and enhancing neuroplasticity. This process improves learning, memory, and resilience against brain aging.

Synaptogenesis: Cardio promotes the formation of new synapses, enhancing neural communication and optimizing processes like problem-solving and memory retention. Physical activity safeguards synapses as we age.

Reduced Oxidative Stress : By enhancing antioxidant defenses, exercise protects neurons from oxidative damage of free radicals, slowing cognitive decline and reducing neurodegenerative risks.

Grey Matter Preservation : Aerobic exercise helps maintain grey matter volume and “bigger brains,” which are critical for decision-making, memory, and emotion regulation , particularly in aging brains. White Matter Integrity : Cardio strengthens white matter pathways, facilitating fast and efficient communication between different brain regions by optimizing whole-brain connectivity. Stress Hormone Regulation : Exercise lowers cortisol levels, shielding the hippocampus from stress-related damage while supporting emotional stability . Inflammation Reduction : Physical activity reduces neuroinflammation, which contributes to cognitive decline and conditions like brain fog . Improved Neurotransmitter Balance : Aerobic workouts boost dopamine ( motivation ), serotonin (mood regulation), and acetylcholine (attention and learning), fostering optimal brain function. Vascular Health : Improved heart and vessel function in fit people reduces their risks of hypertension and stroke. It optimizes blood flow to the brain and sharpens the mind. Better Sleep Quality : Regular exercise enhances deep sleep and time spent in rapid eye movement (REM) sleep stages, leading to more vivid dreams , better memory consolidation, and healthier emotional processing. Promotes Happiness : Movement is medicine that supports psychological well-being. Doing cardio offsets depression and alleviates anxiety , creating a happier emotional state that indirectly supports cognitive health. More Energy, Less Fatigue : Cardio enhances energy levels by improving cardiovascular and mitochondrial function, promoting […]

Read more at www.psychologytoday.com

DAWN OF SUPERINTELLIGENCE

In the rapidly evolving landscape of the 21 st century, the past five years have witnessed groundbreaking advancements in neurotechnology, pushing the boundaries of human cognitive potential and reshaping societal structures. These developments, often deemed as institution-breaking, are not just enhancing individual brain capabilities but also transforming the foundational pillars of education, healthcare, workforce dynamics, and even governance. Here, we delve into the most significant brain technologies that have emerged, exploring their impact and potential future trajectories.

Neural Interfaces: Bridging Minds and Machines

One of the most transformative advancements in recent years has been the development of sophisticated neural interfaces. Companies like Neuralink, co-founded by Elon Musk, have pioneered the creation of brain-machine interfaces (BMIs) that allow for direct communication between the human brain and computers. These interfaces involve the implantation of microelectrodes in the brain, which can record neural activity and stimulate neurons.

The implications of BMIs are profound. For instance, they offer unprecedented opportunities for individuals with paralysis to control prosthetic limbs or computer cursors with their thoughts, thus enhancing their autonomy and quality of life. Beyond medical applications, BMIs are also being explored for cognitive enhancement, potentially enabling individuals to process information faster, improve memory retention, and even communicate telepathically.

Brain-to-Brain Communication: The New Frontier

While BMIs facilitate interaction between humans and machines, the concept of brain-to-brain communication (B2B) has also gained traction. Researchers have demonstrated the feasibility of direct brain-to-brain communication in animal studies and early human trials. This technology involves decoding neural signals from one brain and transmitting them to another, enabling direct exchange of thoughts or sensory experiences. B2B communication holds the promise of revolutionizing collaboration and learning. Imagine a future where knowledge and skills can be transferred directly from one person to another, bypassing traditional modes of education. Such capabilities could accelerate learning processes and foster unprecedented levels of collaboration across various fields, from scientific research to artistic creation.

Cognitive Enhancement: Nootropics and Neurostimulation

Another significant area of advancement is cognitive enhancement through nootropics and neurostimulation. Nootropics, often referred to as “smart drugs,” are substances that can enhance cognitive functions such as memory, creativity, and motivation. Recent years have seen the development of more potent and targeted nootropics, with some being designed to modulate specific neurotransmitter systems.In parallel, neurostimulation techniques such as transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) have shown promise in enhancing cognitive functions. These non-invasive methods involve stimulating specific brain regions to improve cognitive performance. For instance, TMS has been used to enhance language learning and mathematical abilities, while tDCS has shown potential in boosting working memory and problem-solving skills.

AI and Neuroscience: A Symbiotic Relationship

The convergence of artificial intelligence (AI) and neuroscience has been a catalyst for many recent advancements. AI algorithms, particularly those based on deep learning, have been instrumental in decoding complex neural patterns and developing more effective brain-machine interfaces. Conversely, insights from neuroscience are informing the development of more sophisticated AI systems that mimic human cognitive processes.

For example, neural networks inspired by the brain’s architecture have led to breakthroughs in machine learning, enabling AI to perform tasks that were once considered exclusive to human intelligence, such as natural language processing and image recognition. This symbiotic relationship is paving the way for the development of artificial general intelligence (AGI), a form of AI that possesses human-like cognitive abilities.

Ethical and Societal Implications

While the advancements in brain technologies hold immense promise, they also raise critical ethical and societal questions. The potential for cognitive enhancement and brain-to-brain communication could exacerbate existing social inequalities, creating a divide between those who have access to these technologies and those who do not. Moreover, the ability to manipulate neural activity poses risks related to privacy and autonomy, as thoughts and memories could be accessed or altered without consent.Regulatory frameworks and ethical guidelines are essential to navigate these challenges. International collaborations and multidisciplinary dialogues involving scientists, ethicists, policymakers, and the public are crucial to ensure that these technologies are developed and deployed in a manner that maximizes their benefits while minimizing potential harms.

Transforming Institutions: Education, Healthcare, and Governance

The ripple effects of these brain technologies are already being felt across various institutions. In education, the ability to enhance learning through neurostimulation and direct knowledge transfer could revolutionize teaching methodologies and curriculum design. Personalized learning experiences, tailored to the cognitive profiles of individual students, could become the norm, making education more effective and inclusive.

In healthcare, brain technologies are enabling more precise diagnostics and targeted treatments for neurological disorders. For example, advances in neuroimaging and brain mapping are improving our understanding of conditions like Alzheimer’s disease and epilepsy, leading to the development of more effective therapies. Additionally, BMIs and neurostimulation techniques offer new avenues for rehabilitation and recovery, enhancing the quality of life for patients with brain injuries or neurodegenerative diseases.Governance and decision-making processes could also be transformed by brain technologies. Enhanced cognitive abilities and direct communication could improve the efficiency and effectiveness of policymaking. Furthermore, the integration of AI and neurotechnology could enable real-time analysis of complex data, informing more informed and timely decisions.

The Road Ahead: Opportunities and Challenges

As we stand on the brink of a new era driven by brain technologies, the opportunities are immense, but so are the challenges. Continued research and development are essential to unlock the full potential of these technologies. Collaboration across disciplines and sectors will be key to addressing the ethical, legal, and societal implications.Ultimately, the goal is to harness these advancements to enhance human potential and create a more equitable and prosperous future.

The dawn of superintelligence, powered by institution-breaking brain technologies, offers a glimpse into a world where the boundaries of human capability are continuously redefined, and the fabric of society is reshaped for the better. As we navigate this transformative journey, the responsibility lies with all of us to ensure that these innovations serve the collective good, fostering a future where technological progress and human values go hand in hand.

(Author is Scientist- MRCFC-khudwani, SKUAST- kashmir. Visiting […]

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Neurons in the neocortex: Slow-wave sleep strengthens the connections between them, supporting memory formation. Credit: © Charité, Sabine Grosser Slow-wave sleep plays a crucial role in strengthening memory by enhancing synaptic connections in the brain, with new findings suggesting potential methods for boosting memory through targeted stimulation.

For nearly two decades, scientists have known that slow, synchronized electrical waves in the brain during deep sleep play a key role in forming memories. However, the underlying reason remained unclear — until now. In a new study published in Nature Communications , researchers from Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin propose an explanation. They found that these slow waves make the neocortex, the brain’s long-term memory center, especially receptive to new information. This discovery could pave the way for more effective memory-enhancing treatments in the future. How Memories Form During Sleep

How do lasting memories form? Scientists believe that while we sleep, the brain replays events from the day, transferring information from the hippocampus, where short-term memories are stored, to the neocortex, where long-term memories reside. A key player in this process is “slow waves” — synchronized electrical oscillations in the cortex that occur during deep sleep. These waves, which can be measured with an electroencephalogram (EEG), happen when the electrical activity in large groups of neurons rises and falls together about once per second.

“We’ve known for many years that these voltage fluctuations contribute to the formation of memory,” explains Prof. Jörg Geiger, director of the Institute of Neurophysiology at Charité and the head of the newly published study. “When slow-wave sleep is artificially augmented from outside, memory improves. But what we didn’t know until now was what exactly is happening inside the brain when this occurs, because it is extremely difficult to study the flows of information inside the human brain.” Slow waves , or slow oscillations, are a type of electrical wave arising in the brain during deep sleep. “Delta” waves comprise a certain frequency range that shows up in an EEG. These are slow brain waves that can arise outside sleep as well, as part of a disease or disorder. This broader term is sometimes used synonymously with the term “slow waves.” Slow Waves Strengthen Synapses

He and his team have now used intact human brain tissue, which is extremely rare, to clarify the processes that are very likely to underlie the formation of memory during deep sleep. According to their findings, the slow electrical waves influence the strength of synaptic connections between the neurons in the neocortex – and thus their receptivity.

For their study, the team of researchers studied intact neocortical tissue samples taken from 45 patients who had undergone neurosurgery to treat epilepsy or a brain tumor at Charité, the Evangelisches Klinikum Bethel (EvKB) hospital, or the University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf (UKE). The researchers simulated the voltage fluctuations typical of slow brain waves during deep sleep in the tissue and then measured the nerve cells’ response. To achieve this, they used glass micropipettes positioned precisely down to the nanometer. To “listen in” on the communications among multiple nerve cells connected through the tissue, they used up to ten “pipette feelers” at once – an extra large number for this method, which is known as the multipatch technique. Ten “feelers” to track deep sleep: This friendly-looking microscope was instrumental in decoding the effects of the slow waves typical of sleep. Equipped with ten glass pipettes that can be controlled precisely down to the nanometer using robot arms, it can stimulate and read the electrical activity of just as many nerve cells in the connected tissue. Credit: © Charité, Franz Xaver Mittermaier Perfect Timing Contributes to Memory Formation

The team of researchers discovered that the synaptic connections between neurons in the neocortex are maximally enhanced at a very specific point in time during the voltage fluctuations.

“The synapses work most efficiently immediately after the voltage rises from low to high,” explains Franz Xaver Mittermaier, a researcher at the Institute of Neurophysiology at Charité and the first author of the study. “During that brief time window, the cortex can be thought of as having been placed in a state of elevated readiness. If the brain plays back a memory at exactly this time, it is transferred to long-term memory especially effectively. So, slow-wave sleep evidently supports memory formation by making the neocortex particularly receptive for many short periods of time.” Ten “pipette feelers” in use. Credit: © Charité, Yangfan Peng Potential for Memory Improvement

This knowledge could be used to improve memory, for example in mild cognitive impairment in the elderly. Research groups around the world are working on methods of using subtle electrical impulses – transcranial electrostimulation – or acoustic signals to influence slow waves during sleep.

“Right now, though, these stimulation approaches are being optimized through trial and error, which is a laborious and time-consuming process,” Geiger says. “Our findings about the perfect timing could help with this. Now, for the first time, they allow for targeted development of methods of stimulation to boost memory formation.”

Reference: “Membrane potential states gate synaptic consolidation in human neocortical tissue” by Franz X. Mittermaier, Thilo Kalbhenn, Ran Xu, Julia Onken, Katharina Faust, Thomas Sauvigny, Ulrich W. Thomale, Angela M. Kaindl, Martin Holtkamp, Sabine Grosser, Pawel Fidzinski, Matthias Simon, Henrik Alle and Jörg R. P. Geiger, 12 December 2024, Nature Communications .
DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-53901-2

*Mittermaier F. X. et al. Membrane potential states gate synaptic consolidation in human neocortical tissue. Nat Commun 2024 Dec 12. doi: 10.1038/s41467-024-53901-2 About the Study

During surgeries for drug-resistant epilepsy or brain tumors, small fragments of the neocortex sometimes need to be removed for medical reasons. These resected tissue samples can remain viable for up to two days outside the body when preserved in an artificial nutrient solution. For this study, explicit patient consent was required to examine these valuable samples, and the research team expressed profound gratitude to the patients who participated.

The study was a collaborative effort, uniting basic research and clinical expertise. It involved Charité – Universitätsmedizin […]

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Halfpoint Images / Getty Images Doing moderate to vigorous exercise could lead to improved memory the next day, a new study found.

This finding follows increasing evidence that regular physical activity can enhance cognitive abilities.

To boost your next-day memory, experts say to try brisk walking, cycling, swimming, or dancing to upbeat music.

Want to boost your memory for tomorrow? Get in a workout today.

At least that’s the takeaway from a new study finding that older adults who did more moderate to vigorous physical activity than usual on a given day did better in memory tests the day after.1

Researchers found that moving more throughout the day and getting at least six hours of sleep further enhanced mental performance.1

The study, published Dec. 9 in the International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity , builds on previous research showing exercise is good for brain health.

“We know from laboratory-based studies that we get a cognitive boost in the minutes to hours following a bout of exercise,” lead study author Mikaela Bloomberg, PhD , a senior research fellow in social epidemiology with the University College London’s Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, told Health . “We wanted to see whether this benefit might last longer than a couple hours outside of a laboratory.”

How To Boost Your Memory in Your 30s, 40s, 50s, and Beyond A Closer Look at the Study

To examine the link between exercise and memory, researchers recruited 76 cognitively healthy adults from the United Kingdom aged 50 to 83. The participants wore trackers on their wrists for eight days to monitor physical activity and sleep . They also took memory-focused tests daily.

Researchers found an association between an additional 30 minutes of moderate to vigorous physical activity, as measured by tracker data, and better short-term working memory and longer-term episodic memory, which is the ability to recall specific events the next day. Light exercise, such as taking the stairs or walking, did not affect memory the next day.1

The association between cognitive performance and exercise held when researchers controlled for sleep scores. But they also found an independent link between more sleep and better episodic memory and psychomotor speed, a measure of how quickly a person can process information, make sense of it, and respond.1

“Sleep contributes to cognitive performance and physical activity and sleep are intrinsically linked behaviors,” Bloomberg said. “Physical activity impacts sleep quality, both how much sleep you get and which sleep stages you spend the most time in, so we needed to look at both to get the whole picture.”

Experts agreed that the findings aren’t surprising. “There is increasing evidence that regular physical activity can enhance cognitive abilities and potentially lower the risk of developing future dementia ,” Peter Gliebus, MD , director of cognitive and behavioral neurology at Marcus Neuroscience Institute, part of Baptist Health in Boca Raton, Florida, told Health . “This research reinforces existing evidence that regular physical activity is essential for optimal brain function.”

The study has several limitations, however, including the small sample size and the low diversity of participants’ cognitive health. Why Moderate to Vigorous Exercise May Boost Memory

There are several reasons why moderate physical activity, and not lighter exercise, may provide a memory boost.

According to Yi Shan Lee, MD , a clinical assistant professor in the department of medicine at NYU Grossman School of Medicine, research suggests moderate to vigorous physical activity may increase the brain’s ability to create new cells and rewire itself, helping to strengthen memory.

These studies have involved brain imaging as well as measuring levels of memory-related neurotransmitters and lactate, a chemical typically elevated after exercise.2 Increased lactate levels “can further stimulate the production of these neurochemicals, likely causing the short-term effect discussed in this new research,” Lee told Health .

Bloomberg said moderate exercise can also reduce stress and anxiety , which can improve memory.

5 Exercises for Anxiety To Help You Relax What Is Moderate to Vigorous Physical Activity?

The CDC defines moderate to vigorous physical activities as “working hard enough to breathe harder, raise your heart rate, and break a sweat.”3

Lee says some examples of moderate exercise include brisk walking, walking on an incline, cycling, swimming, and dancing to upbeat music. Jogging, running, or playing sports like basketball or football rise to the level of vigorous activity, he added.

“The type of activities matters, as well as the duration of the activity,” Lee said. “There are many types of exercise, but a general reference point I tell my patients would be, ‘It would feel difficult to do the activity and keep up a conversation.’”

Read more at www.health.com

by Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin Neurons in the neocortex: Slow-wave sleep strengthens the connections between them, supporting memory formation. Credit: Charité | Sabine Grosser It has been known for nearly 20 years that slow, synchronous electrical waves in the brain during deep sleep support the formation of memories. Why that is, was previously unknown.

Now, writing in the journal Nature Communications , a team of researchers from Charité—Universitätsmedizin Berlin posits an explanation. According to the study , the slow waves make the neocortex, the location of long-term memory , especially receptive to information. The findings could help to optimize the treatment approaches that are intended to support memory formation from outside.

How do permanent memories form? Experts believe that while we sleep, our brains replay the events of the day, moving information from the location of short-term memory, the hippocampus, to the long-term memory located in the neocortex.

“Slow waves” are especially key to this process: slow, synchronous oscillations of electrical voltage in the cortex that occur during the deep sleep phase. They can be measured using an electroencephalogram (EEG). The waves originate when the electrical voltage in many neurons rises and falls simultaneously once per second.

“We’ve known for many years that these voltage fluctuations contribute to the formation of memory,” explains Prof. Jörg Geiger, director of the Institute of Neurophysiology at Charité and the head of the newly published study.

“When slow-wave sleep is artificially augmented from outside, memory improves. But what we didn’t know until now was what exactly is happening inside the brain when this occurs, because it is extremely difficult to study the flows of information inside the human brain.” Ten “feelers” to track deep sleep: This friendly-looking microscope was instrumental in decoding the effects of the slow waves typical of sleep. Equipped with ten glass pipettes that can be controlled precisely down to the nanometer using robot arms, it can stimulate and read the electrical activity of just as many nerve cells in the connected tissue. Credit: Charité | Franz Xaver Mittermaier Slow waves strengthen synapses

He and his team have now used intact human brain tissue, which is extremely rare, to clarify the processes that are very likely to underlie the formation of memory during deep sleep. According to their findings, the slow electrical waves influence the strength of synaptic connections between the neurons in the neocortex—and thus their receptivity.

For their study, the team of researchers studied intact neocortical tissue samples taken from 45 patients who had undergone neurosurgery to treat epilepsy or a brain tumor at Charité, the Evangelisches Klinikum Bethel (EvKB) hospital, or the University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf (UKE).

The researchers simulated the voltage fluctuations typical of slow brain waves during deep sleep in the tissue and then measured the nerve cells ‘ response.

To achieve this, they used glass micropipettes positioned precisely down to the nanometer. To “listen in” on the communications among multiple nerve cells connected through the tissue, they used up to 10 “pipette feelers” at once—an extra large number for this method, which is known as the multipatch technique. Ten “pipette feelers” in use. Credit: Charité | Yangfan Peng Perfect timing contributes to memory formation

The team of researchers discovered that the synaptic connections between neurons in the neocortex are maximally enhanced at a very specific point in time during the voltage fluctuations.

“The synapses work most efficiently immediately after the voltage rises from low to high,” explains Franz Xaver Mittermaier, a researcher at the Institute of Neurophysiology at Charité and the first author of the study.

“During that brief time window, the cortex can be thought of as having been placed in a state of elevated readiness. If the brain plays back a memory at exactly this time, it is transferred to long-term memory especially effectively. So, slow-wave sleep evidently supports memory formation by making the neocortex particularly receptive for many short periods of time.”

This knowledge could be used to improve memory, for example in mild cognitive impairment in the elderly. Research groups around the world are working on methods of using subtle electrical impulses—transcranial electrostimulation—or acoustic signals to influence slow waves during sleep.

“Right now, though, these stimulation approaches are being optimized through trial and error, which is a laborious and time-consuming process,” Geiger says. “Our findings about the perfect timing could help with this. Now, for the first time, they allow for targeted development of methods of stimulation to boost memory formation.”

More information: Franz X. Mittermaier et al, Membrane potential states gate synaptic consolidation in human neocortical tissue, Nature Communications (2024). DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-53901-2

Provided by Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin

Read more at medicalxpress.com

Researchers at Max Planck Florida Institute discovered that long-term memories can form independently of short-term memories, challenging existing theories and revealing a parallel pathway for memory formation. Long-term memories can form without short-term memory, revealing a new brain pathway.

Scientists at the Max Planck Florida Institute for Neuroscience have uncovered a novel mechanism for the formation of long-term memories in the brain. Their research indicates that long-term memories can develop independently of short-term memories, presenting exciting possibilities for understanding memory-related conditions. A New Perspective on Memory Formation

Our brain works diligently to record experiences as memories, creating representations of daily events that remain with us for short periods. Current scientific theories on memory formation suggest that short-term memories are stored in what we might imagine as a temporary art exhibition in the brain, eventually cleared out to make space for new experiences. A small fraction of these short-term memories—those most significant to us—are transferred to a more permanent exhibit, our long-term memory, where they can be preserved for days, years, or even decades.

The most prevalent theories suggest this is a linear process. Our experience is encoded into a short-term memory, which is then consolidated into a long-term memory. However, a new study by Dr. Myung Eun Shin, Dr. Paula Parra-Beuno, and MPFI Scientific Director Dr. Ryohei Yasuda suggests that there may be another way to long-term memory formation. Scientists discover a new pathway to long-term memory formation in the brain that can bypass the formation of short-term memory. Credit: Helena Pinheiro “This discovery is akin to finding a secret pathway to a permanent gallery in the brain,” said Dr. Shin, the study’s lead author. “The prevailing theory suggested a single pathway, where short-term memories were consolidated into long-term memories. However, we now have strong evidence of at least two distinct pathways to memory formation—one dedicated to short-term memories and another to long-term memories. This could mean our brains are more resilient than previously thought.” The Key Finding: Disrupting short-term memory formation did not block long-term memory

The research team focused on a specific enzyme in neurons called CaMKII, which is critical for short-term memory formation. Previously, they developed an optogenetic approach that uses light to temporarily deactivate CaMKII. With this tool in hand, the team set out to use light to block short-term memory formation in a mouse.

Mice prefer dark spaces and, when given a choice, will immediately enter a dark space from a brightly lit one. However, if a mouse is frightened in a particular dark space, the memory of the frightening experience will alter its behavior, and the mouse will avoid entering the dark space again. When the research team used their tool to disrupt memory formation, even those mice that had a frightening experience an hour earlier entered the dark space, suggesting they had no memory of the experience. The scientists had successfully blocked short-term memory formation.

What happened next was surprising to the research team. A day, week, or even a month later, these mice were altering their behavior to avoid where they were previously frightened. Mice that didn’t seem to remember the frightening experience an hour after it occurred, showed clear evidence of remembering at later times. In other words, blocking short-term memory of the event did not disrupt long-term memory.

“We were initially quite surprised by this observation, as it was inconsistent with how we thought memories were formed. We didn’t think it was possible to have a long-term memory of an event without a short-term memory. However, when we repeated these experiments and used multiple tools and approaches to verify our findings, we were convinced,” describes Dr. Shin. “Rather than long-term memory formation being a linear process, that requires short-term memory, a parallel pathway to long-term memory formation that bypasses short-term memory must exist.” Implications for Memory Dysfunction

This study has changed the model of how memories are formed in the brain. Significant scientific advances often come after previous models of understanding are overturned, and the team is excited to see where this line of research will take them.

“This new finding has revised our understanding. We are now investigating how this newly discovered pathway to long-term memory formation occurs. We are excited to see what we can learn and what this could mean for preserving long-term memory retention, even when short-term memory is compromised by aging or cognitive impairment,” says Dr. Yasuda.

Reference: “Formation of long-term memory without short-term memory revealed by CaMKII inhibition” by Myung Eun Shin, Paula Parra-Bueno and Ryohei Yasuda, 5 December 2024, Nature Neuroscience .
DOI: 10.1038/s41593-024-01831-z

This research was funded by the National Institute of Health and the Max Planck Society.

Read more at scitechdaily.com

Exercising on one day boosts brain function into the nextDepositphotos Declining brain function is a natural part of the aging process, but that doesn’t mean it can’t be delayed. A new study has found that physical activity can boost brain function for up to 24 hours and, independent of exercise, so can a good night’s sleep.

Age-related cognitive decline affects older adults’ well-being, quality of life, and independence. While it may be part of the natural aging process, there are methods of delaying this decline. Exercise is one. Previous studies have found that physical activity is a protective factor for cognitive function .

Now, a new study by researchers from the University College London (UCL) and the University of Oxford in the UK has examined how long the brain-boosting benefits of exercise last in older adults.

“Among older adults, maintaining cognitive function is important for good quality of life, well-being, and independence,” said study co-author Andrew Steptoe from UCL’s Department of Epidemiology and Health Care. “It’s therefore helpful to identify factors that can affect cognitive health on a day-to-day basis.”

A sample of 76 UK adults aged 50 to 83 – mean age 64.6; 60.5% women – wore a waterproof accelerometer on their dominant wrist 24 hours a day for eight consecutive days. Data on physical activity and sedentary behavior were collected and categorized as moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, light physical activity, sedentary behavior. Sleep duration and quality was also assessed. To evaluate the day-to-day associations of movement with cognitive health and mental well-being, participants took daily tests to measure cognition across five domains, including memory (episodic and working memory), executive function, and processing speed.

“Moderate or vigorous activity means anything that gets your heart rate up – this could be brisk walking, dancing or walking up a few flights of stairs,” explained the study’s lead and corresponding author, Dr Mikaela Bloomberg, also from UCL’s Department of Epidemiology and Health Care. “It doesn’t have to be structured exercise.” Independent of physical activity, getting more deep sleep led to better memory the next day Doing more moderate-to-vigorous physical activity was associated with better episodic and working memory up to 24 hours later, while more sedentary behavior was associated with reduced working memory. Working memory relates to our ability to hold information temporarily; it’s important for reasoning and guides behavior and decision-making. Episodic memory enables the recall and re-experiencing of personal experiences or events, including when and where they occurred. These results didn’t change substantively after accounting for sleep characteristics the night before.

Interestingly, the researchers found that independently of previous-day moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, longer overall sleep duration the previous night was associated with better episodic memory and psychomotor speed (the time it takes to process new information, make sense of it and respond physically). Getting more rapid eye movement (REM) sleep – the stage of sleep in which dreaming occurs – was associated with better attention, and more deep, restorative sleep was associated with better next-day episodic memory.

“Our findings suggest that the short-term memory benefits of physical exercise may last longer than previously thought, possibly to the next day instead of just the few hours after exercise,” Bloomberg said. “Getting more sleep, particularly deep sleep, seems to add to this memory improvement.”

“However, we can’t establish from this study whether these short-term boosts to cognitive performance contribute to longer-term cognitive health, and though there is plenty of evidence to suggest physical activity might slow cognitive decline and reduce dementia risk, it’s still a matter of some debate,” added Steptoe.

As Steptoe pointed out, a limitation of the study was that it was unable to examine longer-term changes in cognitive function. Another was that participants were already highly active and cognitively healthy, so the results might not be generalizable to populations with cognitive disorders.

The study was published in the International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity .

Source: UCL

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