Nature Knows and Psionic Success

Cocaine is a dangerous drug that creates intense feelings of euphoria, happiness, and alertness. It has gained infamy over the years due to its association with popular culture and celebrity abuse. Read on to discover some unlikely medical history and learn more about the dangerous effects of cocaine. What is Cocaine?

Cocaine (benzoylmethylecgonine) is a well-known illegal stimulant widely used all over the world [ 1 , 2 ].

Because of its highly dangerous, addictive nature and illegal status, we strongly recommend against using cocaine in any amount and for any reason. This post was written for informational purposes only. The Origins

Cocaine is derived from the leaves of the coca plant ( Erythroxylon coca ) [ 3 , 4 ].

In spite of its recent notoriety, cocaine has a documented history of use by the Amara Indians of Peru. This tribe has made use of cocaine for thousands of years by chewing the leaves of the coca plant [ 5 ].

This kind of use has fewer adverse effects, presumably due to the low concentration of the active component in the leaves and the laborious act of extracting cocaine by chewing the leaves [ 5 ].

Cocaine is the active principle from the leaves of the coca plant. Native Americans have been using it for thousands of years by chewing the leaves. Modern Use and Abuse

However, everything changed in 1859 when German chemist Albert Niemann purified cocaine [ 6 ].

Around the end of 1884, cocaine started gaining publicity and scientific interest. Sigmund Freud praised the drug in his famous Cocaine Papers describing its therapeutic properties in relieving depression and anxiety [ 7 ].

Following Freud’s publications, Carl Koller discovered the anesthetic properties of cocaine on the human eye. Purified cocaine became commercially available when Merck started refining and producing it [ 8 , 5 ].

Without regulatory restrictions, cocaine was initially sold as a therapeutic and consumable product. However, the Harrison Narcotics Act of 1914 in the US banned the distribution of cocaine due to its widespread abuse and addiction [ 6 , 9 ].

Despite regulatory restrictions, the drug is still sold and used illegally around the world. According to a United Nations report, around 18.3 million people used cocaine in 2014 [ 10 ].

Pure cocaine is a white crystal powder that can be snorted, smoked, or injected. It’s called “crack” when smoked (freebase form); street names include coke, flake, snow, and powder [ 11 ].

Purified cocaine gained popularity and scientific interest in the late 19th century, only to be banned as a narcotic in 1914. It’s still being used illegally around the globe. How It Works

Cocaine is highly addictive and produces a feeling of euphoria by causing a buildup of dopamine in the brain’s pleasure center (the limbic system) [ 12 ].

Independent of the route of administration, cocaine is rapidly absorbed into the bloodstream and reaches the brain to initiate its psychostimulant effects [ 6 , 12 ].

Once in the brain, cocaine blocks the reuptake of the neurotransmitters dopamine , noradrenaline , serotonin , and acetylcholine by presynaptic neurons, which boosts their effects [ 6 , 13 , 14 ].

More specifically, cocaine blocks the dopamine transporter SLC6A3 , which causes a buildup of dopamine and an overactivation of dopamine neurons [ 12 ].

Dopamine reinforces the addictive behaviors in the limbic “pleasure” or “reward” center of the brain (mesolimbic and mesocortical dopaminergic systems) [ 15 , 16 ].

Psychoactive changes caused by high dopamine can lead to uncontrolled writhing movements, known as “crack dancing” [ 17 , 18 ].

The sustained effects of the leftover neurotransmitters can cause narrowing of blood vessels, leading to heart complications [ 19 , 20 ].

Cocaine is a stimulant that works by increasing the levels of dopamine, serotonin, and noradrenaline. This can cause many side effects and lead to addiction.

Cocaine’s appealing short-term psychoactive effects (intense high) include [ 21 , 22 ]: Euphoria

Increased energy, alertness, or sociability

Inflated self-esteem

Decreased fatigue 5 Side Effects & Dangers Of Cocaine Cocaine is a powerful drug that has both short and long-term effects. Studies of both humans and animals have shown that cocaine use can damage the heart, brain, liver, kidneys, gut, and blood vessels [ 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28, 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 ].Also, if snorted, cocaine can damage nostril tissues and if smoked, the lungs [ 33 , 34 , 35 ]. Mechanism of Damage Cocaine increases addictive behavior by impairing dopamine transmission in the brain (nucleus accumbens and dorsal striatum), creating cravings in addicts [ 36 , 37 ]. Mitochondria are the energy generators of the cell. As shown by cell-based studies, cocaine can accumulate inside the cell and damage the functional and structural integrity of mitochondria, disrupting cellular energy production and resulting in cell death [ 38 ].Animal studies further showed that cocaine could produce oxidative stress in cells and alter mitochondrial DNA [ 39 ].In the heart, this oxidative stress leads to toxicity and cell death, as observed in human cocaine overdose [ 40 ].Cocaine causes addiction and side effects by impairing dopamine signaling in the brain. It also damages the mitochondria and increases oxidative stress. 1) Psychological Disorders Cocaine can significantly impact the user’s mood and psychological state. Cocaine users have reported a wide range of adverse psychological effects including anxiety, depression , mood swings, paranoia, and panic attacks [ 41 ].Chronic cocaine use can cause symptoms of delirium and aggression [ 42 ].Observational research has shown that cocaine users are significantly more likely to develop depression and psychosis [ 43 , 44 ].Although rare, higher doses can cause hallucinations or false sensory perceptions [ 45 ].Abstinence from cocaine use can create withdrawal symptoms like mood disturbances and cravings [ 46 ].Cocaine can cause an array of psychological disorders such as depression, anxiety, paranoia, and aggression. Abstinence leads to mood disturbance and cravings. 2) Sleep Disorders Cocaine can impair wakefulness and sleep cycles due to chemical […]

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Are you regularly doing your CBCs and CMPs and checking your cholesterol levels? That’s great. And if you are feeling well and overall healthy, it’s likely enough. But what happens when all of these tests are coming back normal yet you still feel like something is wrong? It may be time to dig deeper. Here are some of the tests you and your doctor can easily incorporate into your regular check-ups that can tell you a lot more about your body and help reveal important issues and imbalances. What Blood Tests Should You Get?

We now have at our disposal more ways to tell what’s going on in our bodies than ever before. But oftentimes, these tests are not relied upon, especially when it comes to prevention.

For example, you may be testing your glucose , but not your insulin levels. You may be checking your iron , but not your ferritin. Your lab results may suggest everything is fine until things get seriously out of order. But the truth is – your body may be functioning suboptimally, and, with the right tests, your doctor can often tell.

Here are eight tests that are great to catch chronic diseases in their early stages. Discuss taking them with your doctor. One of these may just be a game-changer for you. Important Tests You May Not Be Getting

1) Insulin

Even if your blood sugar (glucose) levels are fine, your body may still be struggling to keep them in line. You will know if that’s the case when you check your insulin levels.

Insulin is a hormone that is released when you eat in order to help move glucose from the blood into the tissues (mainly muscles, fat tissue, and liver) [ 1 , 2 ]. Insulin levels can go out of balance long before blood sugar does (you can read more about insulin resistance here ).

Researchers found that having fasting insulin levels above the optimal range increases your risk of developing metabolic syndrome, diabetes, heart disease, and dementia [ 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 ]. For example, one study found that a fasting insulin level above 9.0 uIU/mL (well within the normal range of up to 25 uIU/mL) could identify prediabetes with 80% accuracy [ 5 ]. 2) Ferritin

You may be testing your iron levels, but are you checking your ferritin ? Even if your iron is within the normal range, low ferritin can indicate iron deficiency. And if you have unexplained fatigue and ferritin is on the lower side – that indicates you are deficient in iron.

Ferritin is an iron-storing protein. It is important for maintaining proper levels of iron and making sure that iron is available for the different bodily processes that need it. Essentially, ferritin is a measure of your body’s iron stores [ 9 ].

Low ferritin levels are usually due to some kind of gut inflammation that is not allowing the person to absorb iron well, or because of hypothyroidism . When iron (indicated by ferritin) is lower, it can worsen existing health problems. Studies suggest that low ferritin may increase the risk of depression and anxiety by about twofold [ 10 , 11 ].

Conversely, ferritin may be high in many chronic inflammatory conditions including metabolic syndrome, fatty liver, kidney disease, autoimmune disease, diabetes, and cancer [ 12 ]. This makes ferritin a marker of acute and chronic inflammation.

You can read more about ferritin here . 3) Magnesium

Here is an alarming statistic – research suggests that about half (48%) of the U.S. population is deficient in magnesium [ 13 ].

Why is this alarming? Magnesium is the 4th most abundant mineral in our bodies and it’s required for more than 300 different bodily processes [ 14 , 15 ]. A deficiency can wreak havoc on your health. When your magnesium levels are low, you may experience a loss of appetite, fatigue, nausea, insomnia , irritability, and muscle weakness.

In addition, the older you get, the less efficiently your body holds onto magnesium [ 16 , 17 , 18 ]. In its worst stages, magnesium deficiency can contribute to osteoporosis, heart disease, high blood pressure , and diabetes [ 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 15 , 14 , 23 ].

Thankfully, magnesium levels are very easy to test. If your levels are suboptimal or low, you can correct them by increasing your intake of magnesium-rich foods or supplementing. 4) hs-CRP

Another important marker to keep track of if you are concerned about your heart health is C-reactive protein (CRP). Doctors use it to help predict your risk of heart disease. One study suggests that when both CRP and cholesterol levels are high, it may increase the overall risk of heart disease up to ninefold [ 24 ]!

CRP is a protein that increases in response to chronic stress (lack of sleep , emotional issues, smoking, alcoholism, diabetes, nutritional deficiencies, etc.). It’s a great measure of chronic inflammation in your body. 5) LDL Particle Number and Size

Concerned about heart disease? You may be checking your cholesterol levels regularly (if you are not, you should be). But what about your LDL particle number?

LDL particles transport cholesterol in the bloodstream. You can think of LDL particles as cars on a highway (blood vessel) and cholesterol and fats like triglycerides as the passengers. A standard lipid panel will give you a measure of the number of passengers on the roads, but you need LDL particle number to know the number of cars. In addition, LDL particles come in different sizes, with large particles able to carry more cholesterol (buses and SUVs) than small particles (2-seaters) [ 25 ].

Why do LDL particle number and size matter?

For decades, reducing LDL cholesterol has been the primary target for doctors in treating and preventing heart disease. However, researchers found that almost 50% of people who have a heart attack have normal LDL cholesterol levels! In addition, in clinical trials with LDL cholesterol-reducing […]

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Salt has a bad reputation among health-conscious people, but the picture isn’t black and white. The truth about whether salt is good or bad depends on the individual. Some people need more, while others need less. Read on to learn the official recommendations and the risks of both high & low salt intake. The Salt Controversy

People tend to think that a food component is either good or bad , while most of the time the truth is somewhere in between.

Anytime there’s a controversy or a mix of opinions, the good/bad paradigm is usually flawed.

Something can be good in one way and bad in another. It could be good for one person and bad for another.

It could be good in one situation and bad in another.

The reason we think in these terms is that it causes us cognitive strain (or ‘dissonance’) to believe something we’re doing can be both harmful and helpful. We want the benefits, but we don’t want the harm.

Salt is one of those things that have no clear answers but is dependent on the person and dose .

Just like with saturated fat and the controversies surrounding it, people tend to swing between the extremes when it comes to salt, instead of finding the right balance. How Much Salt Do We Consume?

Salt consists of sodium ( 40% ) and chloride ( 60% ), both essential nutrients needed by your body to function.

The average sodium included in the typical US diet is between 3,400-3,840 mg/day [ 1 , 2 ].

It is estimated that salt intake in paleolithic times was less than 1 g/day [ 3 ], much less than our 9.6 g/day in the average American diet [ 1 ].

In fact, an article in the Journal of Cancer Detection and Prevention observes that from Paleolithic to modern times, man’s intake of potassium has significantly decreased, while sodium has significantly increased. The Sodium/Potassium ratio has been reduced by about 20X [ 4 ].

Where does our salt come from? About 75% of our daily salt intake comes from processed foods [ 5 ].

Only 15% comes from knowingly adding salt (ie, cooking and table salt) [ 5 ].

Salt Intake Recommendations

Major United States health organizations advise limiting our sodium intake to under 2,300 mg per day: The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) says limit to 2,300 mg per day.

The Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics (AND)recommends 1,500 to 2,300 mg.

In normal, everyday measurements, that would mean aiming for less than 1 teaspoon of salt per day. The Bad: Potential Problems With Too Much Salt

High Blood Pressure

Health professionals worldwide recommend restricting your sodium intake because it increases blood pressure, which is one of the strongest risk factors for heart disease and stroke [ 8 , 9 ].

A 2013 Cochrane review found that in people with high blood pressure, reducing salt lowers blood pressure by 5.4 points systolic and 2.8 points diastolic. Individuals with normal blood pressure show a reduction of 2.4 and 1.0 [ 10 ].

One study found that lowering sodium intake was more effective at reducing blood pressure in Black and Asian patients than in Whites [ 11 ].

On the other hand, restricting salt may not have direct effects on the risk of death or cardiovascular disease, even in people diagnosed with high blood pressure [ 12 , 13 ]. Inflammation

One concern with excess salt is that it can raise the risk of autoimmune disease by increasing Th1 7 -related inflammation [ 14 ].

Salt-induced inflammation has been found to be a factor in worsening hypertension-related tissue damage [ 15 ], congestive heart failure [ 16 ], and asthma [ 17 ].

Excess salt can raise aldosterone , which is implicated in many chronic diseases and can contribute to inflammation [ 18 , 19 ].In particular, aldosterone increases IL-6 , IL-1b [ 20 ], TNF [ 21 ] and induces Nf-kB , the master control switch of inflammation [ 18 ].However, one found no association between higher sodium intake and systemic inflammation [ 22 ]. Increased Calorie Intake High salt intake may cause you to consume more calories (11% more) than you would otherwise [ 23 ]. Headaches In a study of sodium consumption and headaches , people who ate foods high in sodium – around 8 g per day – had one third more headaches than those who ate foods low in sodium – around 4 g per day [ 24 ].Additionally, it made no difference whether the volunteers ate the standard Western diet or the DASH (Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension) diet [ 24 ].However, it could be the effect of other components in those foods; these studies do not show causation. Cognitive Decline In an animal study, a high salt diet led to a significant decrease in the naturally occurring antioxidants and marked an increase of damaging free radicals in the memory center of the brain [ 25 ].In a rat study, older rats who were put on a high salt diet had a significant worsening of blood pressure levels, memory, anxiety , and overall cognitive health [ 26 ]. Kidney Stones Those who are prone to kidney stones may need to reduce their salt intake, as high sodium excretion also leads to a higher level of calcium excretion in the urine [ 27 ].Again, evidence on this topic is mixed, but it has been demonstrated that if you consume excess sodium, you lose more sodium and calcium in the urine [ 27 ].Subjects who consumed the most sodium tended to lose the most calcium in the urine. Higher calcium excretion may lead to kidney stone formation, particularly if fluid intake is inadequate [ 28 ]. Bone Loss Because of this increased calcium excretion with higher sodium intake, those with osteoporosis may benefit from a lower salt intake as well, but there’s no solid clinical evidence to back this up . Cancer Risk A comprehensive meta-analysis detected […]

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American ginseng is a member of the famous ginseng family, with potential immune-boosting and antioxidant properties. It may prevent diabetes, common cold, and cognitive decline, but the available evidence is scarce. Keep reading to learn the benefits, side effects, and drug interactions of American ginseng. What is American Ginseng?

American ginseng ( Panax quinquefolius ) is a herb that grows mainly in North America. This particular ginseng is in such high demand that it has been declared a threatened or endangered species in some states in the United States. People take it for stress , to boost the immune system, and as a stimulant [ 1 ].

Ginsenosides are the active components of ginseng and are usually found in the root extracts. Ginsenosides have antioxidant properties and can also help protect the brain [ 2 ]. Snapshot

Proponents : Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory

May help with diabetes

May prevent cold & flu

May improve brain function

Skeptics : Clinical evidence is scarce

Dangerous for pregnant women

Interacts with blood thinners

Antioxidant Effects

Ginseng and ginsenosides have an anti-oxidant effect that is manifested as a decrease in oxidative stress [ 3 ].

Ginsenosides Rg2 and Rh1 are effective at improving energy metabolism and protecting mitochondria [ 4 ]. Anti-Inflammatory Effects

Several ginsenosides such as Rd, Rg1, Re, Rg3, Rh2, and Rb1 can control brain inflammatory responses in cultured brain cells. The anti-inflammatory effects might be related to the antioxidant property of ginseng [ 5 ].

It also suppresses inflammation in the colon and prevents DNA damage from occurring [ 6 ]. Health Benefits

1) Cold Prevention

According to four clinical trials of over 1,300 participants, a specific American ginseng extract (CVT-E002, 200-400 mg twice daily) during flu season may decrease the risk of a respiratory tract infection such as the common cold or flu, especially in the elderly [ 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 ].

However, some of these studies were funded by a company that sells the extract, which indicates a potential conflict of interest . 2) Diabetes

Taking American ginseng (3 gr, up to 2 hours before a meal) significantly prevented blood glucose rises in two studies of 19 diabetics and 10 healthy individuals [ 11 , 12 ].

Both American and Asian ginseng root showed anti-diabetic effects in mice [ 13 ].

Preliminary research is promising, but we still lack solid clinical evidence.

No valid clinical evidence supports the use of American ginseng for any of the conditions in this section. Below is a summary of up-to-date animal studies, cell-based research, or low-quality clinical trials which should spark further investigation. However, you shouldn’t interpret them as supportive of any health benefit. 3) Brain Function

Administration of American ginseng to 52 healthy young adults enhanced working memory, calmness, and mood [ 14 ].

Ginseng and ginsenosides can rescue nerve cells by increasing cell survival, extending neurite (projections sticking out of neurons that allow for communication with other neurons) growth, and rescuing neurons from death both in humans and cell cultures [ 5 ].

They also showed beneficial effects in animal models of Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s diseases [ 15 ].

Long-term ginsenoside administration to mice prevented memory loss or impairment [ 16 ]. No clinical evidence supports the use of American ginseng for any of the conditions listed in this section. Below is a summary of the existing animal and cell-based research, which should guide further investigational efforts. However, the studies listed below should not be interpreted as supportive of any health benefit. Withdrawal Symptoms Pseudo Ginsenoside-F11, a saponin contained in American ginseng, effectively reduced anxiety , depression , and memory deficits and alterations of monoamine contents in animal models of drug withdrawal [ 5 ]. Side Effects and Precautions This list does not cover all possible side effects. Contact your doctor or pharmacist if you notice any other side effects. In the US, you may report side effects to the FDA at 1-800-FDA-1088 or at www.fda.gov/medwatch . In Canada, you may report side effects to Health Canada at 1-866-234-2345. American ginseng is likely safe when taken in adequate amounts, short-term. It may also be safe for children, but they should use it under strict medical supervision. Possible side effects are mild and include headache and insomnia [ 17 ].Due to its potential to cause birth defects, shown in animal studies, pregnant women should not take American ginseng [ 18 ]. Drug Interactions Supplement-drug interactions can be dangerous and, in rare cases, even life-threatening. Always consult your doctor before supplementing and let them know about all drugs and supplements you are using or considering. American ginseng may interact with blood thinners (warfarin), diabetes drugs, and immunosuppressants . Caution and strict medical supervision are warranted before using these combinations [ 19 ].

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One of the most well-studied genetic variants in the BDNF gene is the SNP rs6265. The variant that a person carries for this SNP has been reported to affect how much BDNF their brain produces. Because BDNF is believed to be critical for many important processes – such as neurogenesis and synaptic plasticity – this genetic variation could potentially have a variety of significant effects on various aspects of physical health and mental well-being. In this post, we’ll discuss what some of the latest science has to say about some of the effects that may be associated with certain genotypes for this SNP. Read on to learn more! What Is The rs6265 Variant?

In our previous post on the BDNF gene SNP rs6265 , we discussed how certain variants in this gene may influence the amount of BDNF a person produces, as well as some of the potential mechanisms that might be responsible for these differences.

If you missed that post, we highly recommend starting there first – you can find it by clicking here .

Additionally, if you want a more detailed breakdown of exactly what BDNF is and why it’s important, we recommend checking out our comprehensive post on BDNF here .

In this post, we’ll turn to discussing some of the scientific findings that have associated each of the different rs6265 genotypes with more complex effects, which may, in turn, affect various aspects of physiological and psychological health!

You can use SelfDecode to find out what your genotype is.

However, once again keep in mind the limitations and caveats we discussed in the previous post! These findings are all just associations , and these links have not been demonstrated to be directly causative yet. Therefore, just because you have a certain genotype does not automatically mean that you will have any of the traits or conditions that have been associated with that genotype.

With that in mind, let’s see what the science has to say about what the different genotypes for the BDNF SNP rs6265 could potentially mean!

A number of studies have investigated the relationship between this BDNF variant and body weight/obesity.

For example, in men, carriers of the ‘CC’ genotype for rs6265 have been reported to have roughly twice the risk of being overweight compared to people with one or more ‘T’ alleles. However, this same study reported the opposite association in women, where carriers of the ‘CC’ genotype were reported to be up to 50% less likely to be overweight, compared to carriers of one or more ‘T’ alleles [ 1 ]. The results of this study may, therefore, suggest that some of this BDNF variant’s effects may be sex-specific, and more research will be needed to fully tease these nuances out.

Relatedly, some early evidence suggests that rs6265 may influence the effects of certain diets on overall body weight. For example, one study reported that among men with the ‘CC’ genotype, those who consumed diets rich in poly-unsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) tended to weigh significantly less than ‘CC’ carriers with other diets [ 1 ]. This may suggest that people who carry the ‘CC’ genotype may be more likely to benefit from a high-PUFA diet.

This same study also reported a similar trend among women with the ‘CC’ genotype, although this effect was smaller, and ultimately failed to reach statistical significance [ 1 ]. This may suggest that this association, too, is sex-specific.

While these early findings are promising, much more research will still be needed before any firm conclusions can be made about the effect of this particular BDNF variant on overall body weight.

Preliminary findings from some early studies may suggest that BDNF variants – such as rs6265 – may also play a key role in how the body and brain respond to stress .

For example, one study has reported that men with the ‘CC’ genotype showed a larger increase in salivary levels of the “stress hormone” cortisol compared to men with one or more ‘T’ alleles [ 2 ].

Relatedly, another study has also reported that carriers of the ‘T’ allele for rs6265 showed significantly less stress-related activity in the HPA axis compared to people with the ‘CC’ genotype [ 2 ].

While these initial findings might seem to suggest that carriers of the ‘CC’ genotype might be relatively more sensitive to stress in general, at least one additional study has actually reported the opposite effect! According to this study, ‘CC’ carriers were reported to actually show less stress-induced anxiety-like behaviors compared to people with the ‘TT’ genotype [ 3 ].

Overall, while some early evidence suggests a potential relationship between rs6265 genotype and the stress response, the complicated and sometimes-contradictory nature of the findings so far indicates that this relationship may be quite complex, and will most likely need a lot more intensive research before we can fully understand the nuances behind it. BDNF and Stress: Potential Mechanisms

If there is a potential link between BDNF and stress, what might the nature of this relationship be, and what mechanisms might be responsible?

Some clues come from animal studies. For example, injections of BDNF into the hypothalamus of animals led to increased production of the stress-related hormone CRH , and activated the brain’s HPA axis [ 4 ].

In other words, increased BDNF in the hypothalamus may stimulate the stress response (via CRH), whereas reduced expression of BDNF, in general, has been associated with a somewhat suppressed stress response (again via CRH).

However, research from other stress-related mechanisms suggests that the main “stress hormone” cortisol sometimes “shuts off” the stress response by decreasing BDNF levels in the hypothalamus. When cortisol levels are not regulated properly – which can sometimes occur in response to both chronic or severe acute stress – CRH levels can also become dysregulated (elevated), which causes the stress response to be chronically activated [ 4 ].

If BDNF also acts on the stress response by increasing CRH levels, this may potentially explain why people who produce more BDNF (i.e. the ‘CC’ genotype) might tend to be more sensitive to stress.

Additionally, […]

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