Nature Knows and Psionic Success

Regenerating neurons may be one way to improve cognition. Your brain can still make new neurons when you’re an adult. But how does the rare birth of these new neurons contribute to cognitive function?

Neurons are the cells that govern brain function , and you are born with most of the neurons you will ever have during your lifetime. While the brain undergoes most of its development during early life, specific regions of the brain continue to generate new neurons throughout adulthood, although at a much lower rate . Whether this process of neurogenesis actually happens in adults and what function it serves in the brain is still a subject of debate among scientists.

Past research has shown that people with epilepsy or Alzheimer’s disease and other dementias develop fewer neurons as adults than people without these conditions. However, whether the absence of new neurons contributes to the cognitive challenges patients with these neurological disorders face is unknown.

We are part of a team of stem cell researchers , neuroscientists , neurologists, neurosurgeons and neuropsychologists. Our newly published research reveals that the new neurons that form in adults’ brains are linked to how you learn from listening to other people .

Related: Trigger for deadly neurodegenerative disorder identified New neurons and learning

Researchers know that new neurons contribute to memory and learning in mice . But in humans, the technical challenges of identifying and analyzing new neurons in adult brains, combined with their rarity, had led scientists to doubt their significance to brain function.

To uncover the relationship between neurogenesis in adults and cognitive function, we studied patients with drug-resistant epilepsy . These patients underwent cognitive assessments prior to and donated brain tissue during surgical procedures to treat their seizures. To see whether how many new neurons a patient had was associated with specific cognitive functions, we looked under the microscope for markers of neurogenesis. Sign up for the Live Science daily newsletter now

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Contact me with news and offers from other Future brandsReceive email from us on behalf of our trusted partners or sponsorsBy submitting your information you agree to the Terms & Conditions and Privacy Policy and are aged 16 or over. Newborn neurons (green and purple) in brain tissue from human epilepsy patients. We found that new neurons in the adult brain are linked to reduced cognitive decline — particularly in verbal learning , or learning by listening to others.

This was very surprising to us. In mice, new neurons are known for their role in helping them learn and navigate new spaces through visual exploration . However, we did not observe a similar connection between new neurons and spatial learning in people. Improving cognition

Talking with others and remembering those conversations is an integral part of day-to-day life for many people. However, this crucial cognitive function declines with age , and the effects are more severe with neurological disorders . As aging populations grow , the burden of cognitive decline on health care systems worldwide will increase.

Our research suggests that the link between newborn neurons and verbal learning may be foundational to developing treatments to restore cognition in people. Enhancing new neuron generation could be a potential strategy to improve brain health and restore cognition in aging and in people with epilepsy or dementia. But for now, these ideas are just goals and any future treatments are a long way off.

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Importantly, our finding that new neurons function differently in mice and in humans emphasizes the critical need to study biological functions like neurogenesis in people whenever possible. This will ensure that research conducted in animal models, such as mice, is relevant to people and can translate to the clinic.

Current drugs for epilepsy primarily aim to reduce seizures, with limited focus on addressing the cognitive decline patients experience. To enhance cognitive outcomes for patients, we started a clinical trial focusing on boosting new neuron production and cognition in epilepsy patients through aerobic exercise. We are currently in the early Phase 1 of the clinical trial, which seeks to establish the safety of the study. Thus far, two patients have successfully and safely finished the study. We plan to recruit eight more patients to exercise and complete this phase.

By bringing together basic science in the lab and clinical research in people, a better understanding of brain regeneration could help support brain health throughout the lifespan.

This edited article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article .

Postdoctoral Research Associate in Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, University of Southern California

Aswathy Ammothumkandy is a postdoctoral research associate at the University of Southern California’s Stem Cell department with 15 years of experience in neuroscience, epilepsy, cancer biology and stem cell research. She collaborates with neurologists, neurosurgeons and neuropsychologists to study neuronal hyperactivity and cognitive decline in epilepsy patients using surgically resected brain tissue. Her goal is to bridge basic and clinical sciences to uncover new biomarkers and therapies for neurological diseases.

Read more at www.livescience.com

New research indicates that generating new brain cells in adults supports verbal learning and memory, linking reduced neurogenesis with cognitive decline and highlighting potential therapeutic approaches to enhance cognitive health. Credit: SciTechDaily.com Researchers at USC have discovered that the formation of new brain cells in adults, known as neurogenesis, is essential for verbal learning and memory.

This study, utilizing brain tissues from epilepsy patients, shows a direct correlation between decreased neurogenesis and cognitive decline, opening the door to therapies that could enhance cognitive function by promoting neurogenesis. Adult Neurogenesis and Cognitive Function

Why do adults grow new brain cells? A groundbreaking study published today (December 5) in Cell Stem Cell offers the first direct evidence that the generation of new brain cells in adulthood supports verbal learning and memory. This ability helps people engage in conversations and retain what they hear. The findings may pave the way for innovative treatments to restore cognitive function.

The research, conducted by scientists at USC Stem Cell and the USC Neurorestoration Center at the Keck School of Medicine, examined brain tissue from patients with drug-resistant mesial temporal lobe epilepsy (MTLE). This condition is characterized by seizures and accelerated cognitive decline. Newborn neuron (green and purple cell) in brain tissue from patients with epilepsy. Credit: Aswathy Ammothumkandy/Bonaguidi Lab/USC Stem Cell Exploring the Link Between Neurogenesis and Verbal Learning

“Treating patients with epilepsy allows us to investigate the purpose of generating new neurons in our brains. We observe that one of reasons is to learn from the conversations we have” said co-corresponding author Michael Bonaguidi, an associate professor of stem cell biology and regenerative medicine, gerontology, biochemistry and molecular medicine, biomedical engineering, and neurological surgery, and assistant director of the USC Neurorestoration Center.

“These findings are clearly important for all people who suffer from learning and cognitive decline, but they are also specifically relevant to the epilepsy patients who participated in the research,” added co-corresponding author Charles Liu, a professor of neurological surgery, neurology, and biomedical engineering, director of the USC Neurorestoration Center, and director of the USC Epilepsy Care Consortium. Research Methodology and Findings in Epilepsy Patients

In the study, first authors Aswathy Ammothumkandy and Luis Corona from USC and their collaborators investigated how the process of making new brain cells—called neurogenesis—affects different types of cognitive decline during the progression of MTLE.

The researchers found that MTLE patients experience cognitive decline in many areas including verbal learning and memory, intelligence, and visuospatial skills. For verbal learning and memory, as well as for intelligence, patients undergo a dramatic decline during the first 20 years of seizures. During those same two decades, neurogenesis slows to the point where immature brain cells became nearly undetectable. Implications of Neurogenesis on Cognitive Health

Based on these observations, the scientists searched for links between the number of immature brain cells and the major areas of MTLE-related cognitive decline. They found the strongest association occurs between the declining number of immature brain cells and verbal learning and memory.

This is a surprising finding because neurogenesis levels in rodents and other lab animals contribute to a different type of learning and memory using visuospatial skills. The role of neurogenesis in verbal learning and memory highlights the value of studying human brain tissue. These highly valuable surgical specimens were generously donated by patients of the Rancho Los Amigos Epilepsy Center- a unique resource in the public safety-net health system advancing health care and research equity for the underinsured population in the region. During the complex operations, the neurosurgeons carefully removed the affected hippocampus in one piece, curing the majority of the patients of their seizures.

“Our study provides the first cellular evidence of how neurogenesis contributes to human cognition—in this case, verbal learning and memory,” said Bonaguidi. “This work opens a gateway for future studies exploring ways to improve verbal learning and memory by boosting neurogenesis, possibly through exercise or therapeutic drugs. Those approaches could help not only patients with MTLE, Alzheimer’s disease and dementia, but also all of us with aging brains.”

Reference: “Human adult neurogenesis loss corresponds with cognitive decline during epilepsy progression” 5 December 2024, Cell Stem Cell .
DOI: 10.1016/j.stem.2024.11.002

Neuropsychologist Jason Smith from the Medical University of South Carolina is also a co-corresponding author. Additional authors are: Kristine Ravina, Victoria Wolseley, Jeremy Nelson, Nadiya Atai, Aidin Abedi, Lina D’Orazio, Alisha Cayce, Carol McClearly, George Nune, Laura Kalayjian, Darrin Lee, Brian Lee, Christianne Heck, Robert Chow, and Jonathan Russin from USC; Nora Jimenez from Los Angeles General Medical Center; Michelle Armacost from USC and Rancho Los Amigos National Rehabilitation Center; and Virginia Zuverza-Chavarria from Rancho Los Amigos National Rehabilitation Center.

Thirty percent of this work was supported by federal funding from the National Institutes of Health (grants R56AG064077, R01AG076956, and U01MH098937). Additional support came from the Donald E. and Delia B.Baxter Foundation, L.K. Whittier Foundation, Simon-Strauss Foundation, Cure Alzheimer’s Fund, Eli and Edythe Broad Foundation, USC Neurorestoration Center, Rudi Schulte Research Institute, American Epilepsy Society, and California Institute for Regenerative Medicine.

Read more at scitechdaily.com

Regenerating neurons may be one way to improve cognition. stanislavgusev/RooM via Getty Images Your brain can still make new neurons when you’re an adult. But how does the rare birth of these new neurons contribute to cognitive function?

Neurons are the cells that govern brain function , and you are born with most of the neurons you will ever have during your lifetime. While the brain undergoes most of its development during early life, specific regions of the brain continue to generate new neurons throughout adulthood, although at a much lower rate . Whether this process of neurogenesis actually happens in adults and what function it serves in the brain is still a subject of debate among scientists.

Past research has shown that people with epilepsy or Alzheimer’s disease and other dementias develop fewer neurons as adults than people without these conditions. However, whether the absence of new neurons contributes to the cognitive challenges patients with these neurological disorders face is unknown.

We are part of a team of stem cell researchers , neuroscientists , neurologists, neurosurgeons and neuropsychologists. Our newly published research reveals that the new neurons that form in adults’ brains are linked to how you learn from listening to other people . New neurons and learning

Researchers know that new neurons contribute to memory and learning in mice . But in humans, the technical challenges of identifying and analyzing new neurons in adult brains, combined with their rarity, had led scientists to doubt their significance to brain function.

To uncover the relationship between neurogenesis in adults and cognitive function, we studied patients with drug-resistant epilepsy . These patients underwent cognitive assessments prior to and donated brain tissue during surgical procedures to treat their seizures. To see whether how many new neurons a patient had was associated with specific cognitive functions, we looked under the microscope for markers of neurogenesis. Newborn neuron (green and purple) in brain tissue from human epilepsy patients. We found that new neurons in the adult brain are linked to reduced cognitive decline – particularly in verbal learning , or learning by listening to others.

This was very surprising to us. In mice, new neurons are known for their role in helping them learn and navigate new spaces through visual exploration . However, we did not observe a similar connection between new neurons and spatial learning in people. Improving cognition

Talking with others and remembering those conversations is an integral part of day-to-day life for many people. However, this crucial cognitive function declines with age , and the effects are more severe with neurological disorders . As aging populations grow , the burden of cognitive decline on health care systems worldwide will increase.

Our research suggests that the link between newborn neurons and verbal learning may be foundational to developing treatments to restore cognition in people. Enhancing new neuron generation could be a potential strategy to improve brain health and restore cognition in aging and in people with epilepsy or dementia. But for now, these ideas are just goals and any future treatments are a long way off.

Importantly, our finding that new neurons function differently in mice and in humans emphasizes the critical need to study biological functions like neurogenesis in people whenever possible. This will ensure that research conducted in animal models, such as mice, is relevant to people and can translate to the clinic.

Current drugs for epilepsy primarily aim to reduce seizures, with limited focus on addressing the cognitive decline patients experience. To enhance cognitive outcomes for patients, we started a clinical trial focusing on boosting new neuron production and cognition in epilepsy patients through aerobic exercise. We are currently in the early Phase 1 of the clinical trial, which seeks to establish the safety of the study. Thus far, two patients have successfully and safely finished the study. We plan to recruit eight more patients to exercise and complete this phase.

By bringing together basic science in the lab and clinical research in people, a better understanding of brain regeneration could help support brain health throughout the lifespan.

Read more at theconversation.com

In the realm of traditional Indian herbs, Shankhpushpi (Convolvulus pluricaulis) has long been revered for its cognitive and calming properties. Known as a “brain tonic,” Shankhpushpi is a key herb in Ayurveda, often used to enhance memory, reduce stress, and improve cognitive function. Now available in various forms, Shankhpushpi tea has gained popularity for its soothing effects and multiple health benefits, which modern research is starting to support. 1. Cognitive Enhancement and Memory Support

One of the primary reasons Shankhpushpi tea is so valued is for its role in supporting brain health. Traditionally, it has been used as a natural nootropic—a substance that enhances cognitive function without causing adverse side effects. Research published in the Indian Journal of Psychiatry highlights Shankhpushpi’s potential for enhancing learning, memory retention, and recall ability. The study found that the herb contains alkaloids and flavonoids that can modulate neurotransmitters, which play a crucial role in cognitive function and memory formation. Regular consumption of Shankhpushpi tea is said to boost cognitive clarity and may help in mitigating age-related cognitive decline. 2. Reduces Anxiety and Stress

Modern lifestyles often expose individuals to chronic stress and anxiety, which can take a toll on overall well-being. Shankhpushpi tea has traditionally been used as an adaptogen, helping the body manage and adapt to stress. A study published in the Journal of Herbal Medicine found that Shankhpushpi has a calming effect due to the presence of glycosides and flavonoids that act on the brain’s GABA receptors, the neurotransmitters responsible for relaxation. By balancing stress hormones like cortisol, Shankhpushpi tea can support a more balanced mood, helping reduce anxiety symptoms naturally. Consuming this tea daily could be an effective, natural way to manage stress and improve overall emotional health.

Also read: The Power of Spearmint Tea: 7 Health Benefits Of Drinking It On An Empty Stomach 3. Improves Digestion and Metabolism

In addition to its mental benefits, Shankhpushpi tea is known to have a positive impact on digestion. It aids in reducing acidity, constipation, and bloating by promoting the secretion of digestive enzymes and balancing gut flora. Research from the Asian Journal of Pharmaceutical and Clinical Research highlights Shankhpushpi’s role in enhancing digestion, mainly due to its mild laxative effect and capacity to regulate digestive processes. This tea can be particularly helpful when consumed after meals to aid in breaking down food and promoting a smooth digestive process, thus improving metabolism over time. 4. Promotes Heart Health

Shankhpushpi tea also contributes to cardiovascular health. The herb contains antioxidants that reduce oxidative stress, a significant risk factor for heart diseases. A study in the International Journal of Physiology, Pathophysiology, and Pharmacology suggests that Shankhpushpi’s antioxidants can help reduce levels of LDL (bad cholesterol) and prevent arterial plaque build-up, which is crucial for maintaining healthy blood pressure and promoting good cardiovascular health. This tea is beneficial for those looking to incorporate a heart-friendly herb into their diet. 5. Supports Skin Health

Shankhpushpi’s benefits extend to skin health as well, thanks to its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. These properties help combat free radicals that contribute to aging and skin issues such as acne and dullness. When consumed as tea, Shankhpushpi can aid in detoxifying the body, which reflects in clearer, more radiant skin. According to a study in the Journal of Ayurveda and Integrative Medicine, Shankhpushpi’s bioactive compounds can improve skin elasticity and hydration, making it a valuable addition for anyone looking to maintain a youthful appearance naturally.

Also read: Pomegranate Peel Tea: A Natural Remedy for Cough Relief 6. Boosts Immunity

Rich in alkaloids, flavonoids, and other antioxidants, Shankhpushpi tea serves as an immune-boosting drink. These components work to protect cells from oxidative damage and strengthen the body’s natural defense mechanisms. Studies have shown that Shankhpushpi may increase the production of white blood cells and support immune response against common pathogens. With the changing seasons, sipping on Shankhpushpi tea can help in building resilience against seasonal infections and illnesses, making it an ideal choice for immunity enhancement. How to Prepare Shankhpushpi Tea

To make Shankhpushpi tea, you can use dried Shankhpushpi leaves, available at most health stores or online. Here’s a simple recipe:

Ingredients: 1 teaspoon of dried Shankhpushpi leaves

1 cup of water

Honey or lemon for taste (optional)

Instructions: Boil water and add Shankhpushpi leaves.

Let it simmer for 5–10 minutes.

Strain the tea and add honey or lemon if desired.

Enjoy your cup of Shankhpushpi tea 1-2 times daily, preferably in the morning or evening, for maximum benefits. Conclusion

Shankhpushpi tea is a powerful herbal addition to any wellness routine, with a myriad of benefits from cognitive support to improved immunity and digestive health. It offers a holistic approach to well-being, blending ancient wisdom with modern scientific validation. Adding Shankhpushpi tea to your diet can be a valuable step in fostering a balanced and healthy lifestyle. However, as with any herbal supplement, it’s advisable to consult a healthcare provider, especially if you’re pregnant, nursing, or on medication, to ensure it’s suitable for you.

Read more at www.onlymyhealth.com

Key points

LLMs don’t enhance but “optimize” thinking by structuring ideas, synthesizing data, and fostering creativity.

Free from the limitations of chemical enhancers, LLMs improve problem-solving and foster creativity.

Over-reliance and biases are risks; thoughtful integration and critical use are important.

Art: DALL-E/OpenAI Source: Art: DALL-E/OpenAI

For centuries, humans have sought ways to sharpen their mental edge, turning to stimulants like caffeine, nootropics , and, more recently, off-label use of prescription medications such as Adderall to enhance focus and memory temporarily. But large language models offer a new process —one that doesn’t directly alter brain chemistry but instead transforms how we engage with our cognitive capabilities. Unlike conventional stimulants or enhancers, LLMs amplify and optimize thinking by structuring thought, synthesizing information, and fostering creativity.

This distinction is critical: LLMs do not enhance cognition in the traditional sense, but they act as powerful amplifiers and scaffolding tools that extend what we can think and achieve. LLMs as Cognitive Optimizers

LLMs work externally to augment cognitive processes, acting as dynamic scaffolding that enhances how we think. They don’t alter the underlying mechanics of cognition but instead optimize how we use our existing abilities. Their adaptability allows them to tailor responses to specific needs, enabling users to tackle complex problems with greater efficiency and depth. Structuring Thought : LLMs organize ideas into coherent frameworks, making it easier to address complex challenges systematically.

Synthesizing Knowledge : They distill vast amounts of information into concise, actionable insights that align with user needs.

Providing Feedback : Acting as cognitive mirrors , LLMs highlight inconsistencies, uncover gaps, and refine reasoning through iterative dialogue.

Encouraging Neuroplasticity : By engaging in problem-solving, creativity, and learning with LLMs, users may stimulate neural pathways, promoting adaptability and cognitive flexibility.

By combining these capabilities, LLMs help users bridge the gap between information overload and meaningful understanding. In this way, they function not just as tools but as collaborative partners in thought, amplifying our capacity for critical and creative thinking . Cognitive Fitness for the Aging Brain

One intriguing application of LLMs is their potential to support cognitive fitness LLMs are their potential to support cognitive fitness , particularly for aging individuals. Research consistently shows that engaging in mentally stimulating activities—like puzzles, learning new skills, or participating in deep conversations—helps maintain cognitive function and may even delay age-related decline. LLMs provide a dynamic, accessible form of this mental exercise.

By interacting with LLMs, older users can engage in iterative problem-solving, explore topics of personal interest, or brainstorm creative projects. These interactions mimic the benefits of real-life discussions and intellectual exploration while offering adaptability and scalability that traditional methods often lack. LLMs provide customizable cognitive workouts tailored to individual preferences, promoting lifelong mental engagement and neuroplasticity. Creativity and Problem-Solving: Amplified

Creativity and problem-solving are hallmarks of peak cognition, and LLMs can amplify both. Through their conversational nature, they serve as collaborative partners, helping users refine and expand ideas. When faced with a complex problem, an LLM can break it down into smaller components, offering structured pathways to resolution while suggesting alternative approaches. For creative pursuits, LLMs inspire divergent thinking by reframing concepts or generating entirely new perspectives.

This iterative dialogue creates a feedback loop that mirrors the benefits of brainstorming with a human partner. However, unlike human collaborators, LLMs are infinitely patient, always available, and capable of drawing from an extensive repository of knowledge. They don’t just enhance creativity; they make it more accessible and sustainable. The Joy of Learning

One of the more surprising advantages of LLMs is the intrinsic joy they bring to the process of learning. Interactions with LLMs tap into the natural human pleasure of curiosity and discovery. Unlike chemically mediated tools, which may provide fleeting bursts of focus or energy, LLMs foster sustained engagement through meaningful dialogue and exploration.

This joy arises from the conversational dynamics of interacting with an LLM. Users can pose questions, test hypotheses, or challenge assumptions, receiving thoughtful responses tailored to their needs. These interactions mimic the intellectual satisfaction of engaging with a mentor or collaborator. The result is an environment where learning is not just effective but enjoyable, motivating users to delve deeper and explore further. Promises and Risks

While LLMs hold significant promise, their use is not without risks. A study in the International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education highlights concerns that over-reliance on generative AI tools can lead to cognitive disengagement, procrastination , and diminished memory retention, particularly among students. These findings underscore the importance of using LLMs as supplements to critical thinking rather than replacements for it.

Additionally, widespread reliance on LLMs raises concerns about bias , accuracy, and accessibility. The outputs of LLMs are only as reliable as the data they’re trained on, necessitating critical evaluation by users. Furthermore, disparities in access to technology and digital literacy could widen existing inequalities, limiting the democratizing potential of these tools. Addressing these challenges requires fostering digital literacy, encouraging critical engagement, and integrating LLMs thoughtfully into workflows. The Cognitive Frontier

LLMs represent more than just another step in humanity’s quest for cognitive enhancement—they mark a fundamental shift in how we extend our mental capabilities. Unlike traditional tools that alter our brain chemistry, LLMs serve as intellectual mirrors and catalysts, amplifying our natural cognitive abilities through structured dialogue and collaborative exploration.

What makes them revolutionary is their unique combination of human-like interaction with machine-like capabilities, creating something unprecedented: a tool that doesn’t just enhance our thinking, but transforms how we understand and develop our own cognitive capabilities. The key lies not in LLMs replacing human thought but in their ability, but in their ability to help us think better, learn deeper, and explore further than ever before—potentially redefining the very boundaries of human cognitive potential.

Read more at www.psychologytoday.com

Research shows a little mental replay will help you remember more, and for a long longer. Illustration: Getty Images. Knowledge is power, as long as you actually put that knowledge to use. Success in any pursuit is based on what you do with what you know: It follows that the more you retain and remember, the more you can do.

There are plenty of simple ways to improve your memory. Interleaving, learning, or practicing more than one subject or task in succession . Distributed practice, intentionally spacing out learning sessions . Literally sleeping on it . Even chewing gum .

But my favorite involves memory consolidation, the process of transforming temporary memories into more stable, long-lasting memories. Even though the process of memory consolidation can be sped up , still: storing a memory in a lasting way takes time. The 40-second replay

One way to increase the odds is to replay whatever you want to remember for about 40 seconds. A study published in Journal of Neuroscience found that a brief period of rehearsal — like replaying an event in your mind, replaying what someone said, or replaying a series of steps you want to take — makes it much more likely you will remember what you replayed.

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For example, I’ve never forgotten the time Mark Cuban told me , “No one’s time is so valuable they can’t be nice.” Partly that’s because the situation itself was memorable , but that’s also because I re-lived that moment as he walked away, and thought about it later in the day as well.

As the researchers write: Memories are strengthened via consolidation. We investigated memory for lifelike events using video clips and showed that rehearsing their content dramatically boosts memory consolidation. Using MRI scanning, we measured patterns of brain activity while watching the videos and showed that, in a network of brain regions, similar patterns of brain activity are reinstated when rehearsing the same videos. Within the posterior cingulate, the strength of reinstatement predicted how well the videos were remembered a week later. The findings extend our knowledge of the brain regions important for creating long-lasting memories for complex, lifelike events. Or in non-researcher speak, replaying an event has a major effect on your ability to remember complex, lifelike events, in part because those memories get stored across a range of brain regions, and because replaying the event adds context. How to remember names

Say, like me, you’re terrible at remembering people’s names. When you walk away after being introduced, take 30 or 40 seconds to replay the introduction. What you said. What they said. How they looked, how you felt, what was happening around you – play the “video” in your mind.

Do that, and you’ll be much more likely to remember that person’s name, as well as other things they, and you, said.

The 40-second technique also works for things you’ve been shown how to do. An electrician showed me how to wire a three-way circuit. Thirty minutes later, when i tried to do it myself, I couldn’t.

I went back and asked him to show me again – but this time, when he was done, I took a few minutes to replay his demonstration. I tried to remember what he said, what he did, what I was thinking. It worked.

Later, I still had to ask him one question, but I basically had gotten it. Failing one part of the “test” also helped me remember how to do it. Research shows testing yourself, whether formally or inadvertently, dramatically improves retention .

Memory consolidation works, especially if you make it an intentional, active process. So start replaying. You’ll remember more – and be able to do more with what you know.

Read more at www.inc.com

Hard-charging entrepreneurs used to brag about how little sleep they got. Thankfully, we’ve moved past that.

NOV 29, 2024 Illustration: Getty Images It happens to all of us, and yet most of us have been told there’s nothing we can do about it.

You have a bad night’s sleep. Maybe you were out having fun, maybe you were up doing work. Maybe you tossed and turned and tried, but you just couldn’t switch off your brain.

Then, it’s morning, and you’re exhausted.

You can’t wait for the day to be done, because you just want to get to bed. Or else maybe you motor on, caffeinated but cranky, convinced that even if you found the time for a short nap it wouldn’t do much for you, because REM sleep is supposedly the only sleep that really matters.

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Fret not, my sleep-deprived friend, because new neuroscience suggests that NREM sleep—meaning, straightforwardly, “non-rapid eye movement” phases of sleep—has specific benefits for the performance of the neurons in your brain.

Researchers at Rice University, Houston Methodist’s Center for Neural Systems Restoration, and Weill Cornell Medical College say they’ve uncovered some key secrets that might, in the words of an official summary , “chang[e] our fundamental understanding of how sleep boosts brainpower.”

Specifically, the summary continues, their research “reveals how NREM sleep—the lighter sleep one experiences when taking a nap, for example—fosters brain synchronization and enhances information encoding, shedding new light on this sleep stage.”

Their study was interesting, and frankly sounds kind of adorable. Using macaques as test subjects, which are a type of monkey, the researchers had the animals “perfor[m] a visual discrimination task” both before and after they were allowed 30 minutes of NREM sleep. Napping secrets

Put in layperson’s terms: They had the primates take a test, then let them take a 30-minute nap, and then had them take a similar test again.

The results, as you might imagine since they wrote an entire research paper about it, published in the most recent edition of the journal Science , were that the macaques performed better on the test after having had the pleasure of a nap.

“During sleep, we observed an increase in low-frequency delta wave activity and synchronized firing among neurons across different cortical regions,” said study author Natasha Kharas, who is a resident in neurological surgery at Weill Cornell. “After sleep, however, neuronal activity became more de-synchronized compared to before sleep, allowing neurons to fire more independently. This shift led to improved accuracy in information processing and performance in the visual tasks.”

Apparently, as a control, they also had macaques who were allowed to rest but not fall asleep do the tasks for a second time, but did not see the improved performance.

Afterward, the researchers attempted to determine if they could stimulate the same kinds of effects in the brain that are derived from NREM sleep without the animals actually having to nap, by using “low-frequency electrical stimulation of the visual cortex.” Surprising benefits

While less adorable than the idea of a bunch of monkeys having nap time together in a lab, the researchers said this artificial NREM sleep nevertheless resulted in similar improved performance.

While that wouldn’t impart other benefits of sleep besides these types of brain functions, it does suggest the possibility of a whole world of other practical applications.

Imagine, for example, finding ways to boost brainpower among people with sleep disorders, or even those who for practical reasons might not be able to get as much sleep as they need; think rescue personnel, soldiers, or as the study authors suggested, astronauts in space.

“Our study not only deepens our mechanistic understanding of sleep’s role in cognitive function but also breaks new ground by showing that specific patterns of brain stimulation could substitute for some benefits of sleep, pointing toward a future where we might boost brain function independently of sleep itself,” said study co-author Valentin Dragoi, a professor of neuroscience at Weill Cornell.

I’ve been writing about these kinds of subjects long enough to remember when hard-charging entrepreneurs would brag about how little sleep they got each night. Thankfully, we’ve moved past that.

We all have those days when we just didn’t get enough shuteye. Now, maybe you’ve got a bit more evidence to suggest it might be worth working a 30-minute or so catch-up into your day when that happens.

Find a cozy spot, doze off, and maybe dream of napping macaques.

The opinions expressed here by Inc.com columnists are their own, not those of Inc.com.

Read more at www.inc.com

Cheap Daily Supplement Seems to Boost Brain Function in Older Adults What’s good for your aging gut may also be good for your aging brain. The first study of its kind in twins has found that taking daily protein and prebiotic supplements can improve scores on memory tests in people over the age of 60.

The findings are food for thought, especially as the same visual memory and learning test is used to detect early signs of Alzheimer’s disease.

The double-blinded trial involved two cheap plant fiber prebiotics that are available over the counter in numerous nations around the world. Prebiotics are non-digestible consumables that help stimulate our gut microbes.

One is called inulin , and it is a dietary fiber in the class fructan. Another is called fructooligosaccharide (FOS), and it is a plant carbohydrate often used as a natural low calorie sweetener. Fructooligosaccharide is often used as a natural low calorie sweetener. ( towfiqu barbhuiya/Canva ) To test the effect of these supplements on the aging brain, researchers at King’s College London enrolled 36 pairs of twins over the age of 60.

Each duo was randomly split so that one twin was assigned a daily prebiotic in a protein powder and the other was assigned a daily placebo in a protein powder.

The twin who unknowingly took inulin or FOS generally scored higher on a cognitive test three months later.

What’s more, the daily fiber supplements were linked to slight changes in the gut microbiome between twins. The beneficial Bifidobacterium , for instance, were more plentiful in twins taking inulin or FOS.

Studies on mice suggest Bifidobacterium reduces cognitive deficits by regulating gut-brain connections. Daily fiber supplements were linked to slight changes in the gut microbiome between twins. ( troyanphotos/Canva ) “We are excited to see these changes in just 12 weeks. This holds huge promise for enhancing brain health and memory in our aging population,” said Mary Ni Lochlainn, a geriatric medicine researcher at King’s College London, when the findings were published in March.

“Unlocking the secrets of the gut-brain axis could offer new approaches for living more healthily for longer.”

King’s College is home to the United Kingdom’s largest adult twin registry, and twin studies are highly valuable when it comes to differentiating between the effect of genetics and the environment on human health.

Past studies on rodents suggest that high-fiber supplements, like inulin and FOS, can ‘feed’ the colon’s microbiome, allowing ‘good’ bacteria to thrive.

Some of these bacterial players are also linked to improved cognitive function in both mice and humans . Twin studies are highly valuable when it comes to differentiating between the effect of genetics and the environment on human health. ( recep-bg/Canva ) Evidence for the close relationship between the gut and the brain is growing year after year . Some experts are now so convinced by the results, they refer to the gut as the body’s ‘second brain’.

But the way these two nervous systems work together remains a mystery.

The recent twin study at KCL suggests that consuming certain ‘brain foods’ may be a promising way to treat cognitive decline.

But while prebiotics might improve some aspects of cognitive function in an aging brain, like memory and processing times, there don’t appear to be significant physical benefits.

Muscle loss didn’t improve among aging twins taking high-fiber supplements, despite the fact that inulin and FOS are important factors in musculoskeletal maintenance.

“These plant fibers, which are cheap and available over the counter, could benefit a wide group of people in these cash-strapped times. They are safe and acceptable too,” said geriatrician Claire Steves at KCL.

“Our next task is to see whether these effects are sustained over longer periods and in larger groups of people.” What’s good for your aging gut may also be good for your aging brain. ( Robert Kneschke/Canva ) The twins that participated in the current trial were mostly female, and even though the researchers adjusted for sex differences in their findings, they acknowledge that there may be some selection bias amongst KCL’s twin cohort.

That said, females are more susceptible to Alzheimer’s disease, and studies like the current one support the emerging idea that cognitive decline is not always a disease of the brain , but may involve external factors, too.

The gut has its fingers in many bodily ‘pies’, including the immune system and the central nervous system. Feeding its microbiome certain prebiotics and probiotics could open the door to treating a plethora of illnesses and diseases.

The study was published in Nature Communications .

An earlier version of this article was published in March 2024. Related News

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Researchers are exploring a nasal spray to inhibit the zDHHC enzyme, reducing Alzheimer’s-related brain damage. Promising animal studies are paving the way for new human therapies. A study conducted by Università Cattolica in Rome and the Fondazione Policlinico Universitario Agostino Gemelli IRCCS has uncovered a significant mechanism involved in Alzheimer’s disease and identified potential new therapeutic approaches.

A potential future treatment for Alzheimer’s disease could involve a nasal spray. Researchers from Università Cattolica and Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS have identified a way to counteract cognitive decline and brain damage associated with the disease by targeting the brain enzyme S-acyltransferase (zDHHC) with a nasal-spray drug. The study was led by Professor Claudio Grassi, Director of the Neuroscience Department, and Professor Salvatore Fusco, in collaboration with the University of Catania.

The researchers observed that the post-mortem brains of Alzheimer patients contained an excess of S-acyltransferase, which could be a promising therapeutic target of new drugs. They also found that higher concentrations of this enzyme were associated with worse cognitive performance. Thanks to a €890,000 grant from the Ministry of Health’s 2023 PNRR call, new therapeutic approaches against this enzyme will be explored. Background

The development of Alzheimer is driven by alterations in certain proteins, including beta-amyloid and tau, which aggregate and accumulate in the brain. These proteins’ functions are regulated by multiple signals and modifications, including the attachment of a fatty acid molecule in a biochemical reaction called “S-palmitoylation,” which is performed by S-acyltransferase enzymes (zDHHC).

“In previous studies, we demonstrated that altered S-palmitoylation of synaptic proteins plays a critical role in cognitive decline induced by metabolic diseases like type 2 diabetes (Spinelli et al., Nature Communications) and that brain insulin resistance may impact the amount of active zDHHC enzymes in the brain,” Prof. Fusco explains. The authors also note a well-established link between insulin resistance and neurodegenerative diseases, so much so that Alzheimer’s is often called type III diabetes.

“In this new study, we showed that in the early stages of Alzheimer’s, molecular changes resembling a scenario of brain insulin resistance cause an increase of zDHHC7 enzyme levels and alter the S-palmitoylation of key proteins involved in cognitive functions and beta-amyloid accumulation.” Toward New Treatment Options

“Our findings show that in animal models of Alzheimer’s disease, both pharmacological and genetic inhibition of protein S-palmitoylation can counteract the accumulation of harmful proteins in neurons and delay the onset and progression of cognitive decline”, the lead author of the study Dr. Francesca Natale adds. Furthermore, in post-mortem brain samples from Alzheimer’s patients, there are elevated levels of zDHHC7 and S-palmitoylated proteins, with an inverse correlation between BACE1 S-palmitoylation levels and cognitive maintenance scores on the Mini Mental State Examination.

In experiments performed on genetically modified mice replicating Alzheimer’s disorder, researchers turned off zDHHC enzymes using an experimental nasal-spray drug called “2-bromopalmitate”. This approach successfully stopped neurodegeneration, reduced symptoms, and even extended the animals’ lifespan.

“Currently, no drugs can selectively block zDHHC7, and 2-bromopalmitate is not sufficiently precise”, Prof. Grassi says. However, thanks to the PNRR 2023 funding, new approaches—potentially translatable to human therapies—will be tested, including “genetic patches” (small ‘oligonucleotides’ that bind to the zDHHC7 enzyme’s RNA and prevent its maturation) or engineered proteins that can interfere with zDHHC enzyme activity.”

Reference: “Inhibition of zDHHC7-driven protein S-palmitoylation prevents cognitive deficits in an experimental model of Alzheimer’s disease” by Francesca Natale, Matteo Spinelli, Marco Rinaudo, Walter Gulisano, Ida Nifo Sarrapochiello, Giuseppe Aceto, Daniela Puzzo, Salvatore Fusco and Claudio Grassi, 26 November 2024, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences .
DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2402604121

Alzheimer’s Disease Brain

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Cheap Daily Supplement Seems to Boost Brain Function in Older Adults What’s good for your aging gut may also be good for your aging brain. The first study of its kind in twins has found that taking daily protein and prebiotic supplements can improve scores on memory tests in people over the age of 60.

The findings are food for thought, especially as the same visual memory and learning test is used to detect early signs of Alzheimer’s disease.

The double-blinded trial involved two cheap plant fiber prebiotics that are available over the counter in numerous nations around the world. Prebiotics are non-digestible consumables that help stimulate our gut microbes.

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One is called inulin , and it is a dietary fiber in the class fructan. Another is called fructooligosaccharide (FOS), and it is a plant carbohydrate often used as a natural low calorie sweetener. Fructooligosaccharide is often used as a natural low calorie sweetener. ( towfiqu barbhuiya/Canva ) To test the effect of these supplements on the aging brain, researchers at King’s College London enrolled 36 pairs of twins over the age of 60.

Each duo was randomly split so that one twin was assigned a daily prebiotic in a protein powder and the other was assigned a daily placebo in a protein powder.

The twin who unknowingly took inulin or FOS generally scored higher on a cognitive test three months later.

What’s more, the daily fiber supplements were linked to slight changes in the gut microbiome between twins. The beneficial Bifidobacterium , for instance, were more plentiful in twins taking inulin or FOS.

Studies on mice suggest Bifidobacterium reduces cognitive deficits by regulating gut-brain connections. Daily fiber supplements were linked to slight changes in the gut microbiome between twins. ( troyanphotos/Canva ) “We are excited to see these changes in just 12 weeks. This holds huge promise for enhancing brain health and memory in our aging population,” said Mary Ni Lochlainn, a geriatric medicine researcher at King’s College London, when the findings were published in March.

“Unlocking the secrets of the gut-brain axis could offer new approaches for living more healthily for longer.”

King’s College is home to the United Kingdom’s largest adult twin registry, and twin studies are highly valuable when it comes to differentiating between the effect of genetics and the environment on human health.

Past studies on rodents suggest that high-fiber supplements, like inulin and FOS, can ‘feed’ the colon’s microbiome, allowing ‘good’ bacteria to thrive.

Some of these bacterial players are also linked to improved cognitive function in both mice and humans . Twin studies are highly valuable when it comes to differentiating between the effect of genetics and the environment on human health. ( recep-bg/Canva ) Evidence for the close relationship between the gut and the brain is growing year after year . Some experts are now so convinced by the results, they refer to the gut as the body’s ‘second brain’.

But the way these two nervous systems work together remains a mystery.

The recent twin study at KCL suggests that consuming certain ‘brain foods’ may be a promising way to treat cognitive decline.

But while prebiotics might improve some aspects of cognitive function in an aging brain, like memory and processing times, there don’t appear to be significant physical benefits.

Muscle loss didn’t improve among aging twins taking high-fiber supplements, despite the fact that inulin and FOS are important factors in musculoskeletal maintenance.

“These plant fibers, which are cheap and available over the counter, could benefit a wide group of people in these cash-strapped times. They are safe and acceptable too,” said geriatrician Claire Steves at KCL.

“Our next task is to see whether these effects are sustained over longer periods and in larger groups of people.” What’s good for your aging gut may also be good for your aging brain. ( Robert Kneschke/Canva ) The twins that participated in the current trial were mostly female, and even though the researchers adjusted for sex differences in their findings, they acknowledge that there may be some selection bias amongst KCL’s twin cohort.

That said, females are more susceptible to Alzheimer’s disease, and studies like the current one support the emerging idea that cognitive decline is not always a disease of the brain , but may involve external factors, too.

The gut has its fingers in many bodily ‘pies’, including the immune system and the central nervous system. Feeding its microbiome certain prebiotics and probiotics could open the door to treating a plethora of illnesses and diseases.

The study was published in Nature Communications .

An earlier version of this article was published in March 2024. Related News

Young American Deaths From Cervical Cancer Fall Sharply After HPV Vaccine

Ozempic vs Supplements: Dietitian Reveals Truth About GLP-1 Imitations

Scientists Discover a Speech Trait That Foreshadows Cognitive Decline Advertisement About Our Ads Solve the daily Crossword The daily Crossword was played 13,568 times last week. Can you solve it faster than others?

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Tags: aging secrets , alcohol consumption , alternative medicine , Alzheimer’s disease , anti-aging , brain function , brain health , dementia , exercise , goodhealth , goodmedicine , goodscience , health science , lifestyle habits , men’s health , Mind , mind body science , natural health , natural medicine , prevention , research , sleep , stop smoking , tips , women’s health Over 55 million people worldwide are living with dementia — a term for various progressive disorders affecting memory and thinking. Alzheimer’s disease is the most common type of dementia and is responsible for up to 75 percent of dementia cases. While factors like race, ethnicity and family history influence your dementia risk, research suggests that adopting six key lifestyle habits can significantly lower your likelihood of developing dementia.

A recent study published in the Journal of Affective Disorders examined participants aged 60 and above who were dementia-free at the time. The researchers analyzed lifestyle factors and gave scores from zero to six based on the participants’ habits. Participants earned points for following specific healthy lifestyle practices, such as: Regular exercise – Engaging in physical activity for more than 10 minutes almost every day or at least three or four days a week.

Social interaction – Meeting with others socially more than three times a month or three times a week.

Leisure activities – Reading books or newspapers daily, using the internet daily or playing cards at least twice a week.

Quality sleep – Falling asleep easily and not waking up frequently during the night.

Avoiding smoking – Either never having smoked or having quit smoking.

Limiting alcohol consumption – Rarely consume alcohol each month.

The researchers found that participants who scored four or more points were 29 percent less likely to exhibit early signs of cognitive decline compared to those with lower scores. Each extra point on the lifestyle score was associated with an 18 percent reduced risk of cognitive decline.

In contrast, those who scored three or less were three times more likely to suffer from cognitive issues. Healthy lifestyle changes that help prevent dementia

According to the study, adopting these healthy lifestyle changes can help you maintain optimal brain performance even as you age: Exercising regularly

The study defined regular exercise as any activity lasting at least 10 minutes a day, most days of the week. Another study, published in the Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease , found that even light daily exercise, such as walking a few thousand steps, can increase the size of brain areas important for memory and learning .

Exercise increases blood flow to the brain, nourishing brain cells and promoting the formation of new nerve connections. Exercise can enhance cognitive function and slow age-related cognitive decline. Even moderate exercise can lead to a larger brain volume and better cognitive health by reducing inflammation and oxidative stress, both of which are linked to dementia. Avoiding or quitting smoking

Participants who had never smoked or had quit smoking received a point for their healthier lifestyle. Research published in Biological Psychiatry: Global Open Science shows that smoking accelerates brain shrinkage , increasing the risk of Alzheimer’s disease and other types of dementia.

Smoking negatively impacts brain health by causing inflammation and reducing blood flow, which can damage brain cells. Quitting smoking improves cardiovascular health and reduces brain inflammation, which helps preserve cognitive function. Limiting alcohol consumption

Participants who rarely consumed alcohol were awarded a point. Research published in JAMA Network Open linked heavy drinking (three or more drinks daily) to an eight percent higher risk of dementia .

Reducing alcohol intake can protect cognitive health. Excessive alcohol consumption can lead to brain damage, nutritional deficiencies and liver problems, all of which can impair brain function. Moderate or minimal alcohol consumption is associated with a lower risk of dementia. Maintaining social interactions

Engaging in social activities more than three times a month or three times a week can also be beneficial. Social isolation is a significant health risk and is linked to higher risks of dementia, premature death, heart disease, stroke, stress and depression. In-person interactions are crucial for mental stimulation and a sense of connection.

Social activities help keep the brain active and engaged through communication, emotional involvement and problem-solving, all of which stimulate cognitive function. Regular social engagement helps maintain mental health, reduces stress and provides emotional support, contributing to better cognitive health. Engaging in leisure activities

Keeping your mind active by reading books or newspapers daily, using the internet or playing cards at least twice a week can help you maintain cognitive sharpness. Engaging in enjoyable and meaningful activities stimulates the brain, which is essential for maintaining cognitive health and preventing dementia. Getting good-quality sleep

Good-quality sleep is vital for cognitive health. Experts recommend getting seven to nine hours of sleep every night to reduce the risk of various chronic illnesses, including obesity, heart disease and depression. During sleep, the brain processes and consolidates memories and clears out toxins. Poor-quality sleep can impair cognitive function and increase the risk of dementia. Ensuring adequate and restful sleep supports overall brain function and helps protect against cognitive decline.

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Everyday physical activity, whether light or vigorous, can immediately enhance cognitive processing speed, equivalent to being four years younger, according to Penn State researchers. Regular activity appears to amplify these benefits, though further studies are needed to explore long-term effects. According to a new study, taking a mid-day walk or doing household chores could enhance cognitive processing speed, making it comparable to being four years younger.

Exercise is known to enhance brain health and lower the long-term risk of cognitive decline and dementia. However, a recent study by researchers at Penn State College of Medicine reveals that even everyday physical activity can deliver immediate benefits for brain health.

The team found that middle-aged people who participated in everyday movement showed improvement in cognitive processing speed equivalent to being four years younger, regardless of whether the activity was lower intensity, like walking the dog or doing household chores, or higher intensity, like jogging.

The findings were published in the journal Annals of Behavioral Medicine .

“You don’t have to go to the gym to experience all the potential benefits of physical activity,” said Jonathan Hakun, assistant professor of neurology and psychology at Penn State and the Penn State College of Medicine. “All movement is important. Everyday movement counts as a source of accumulated physical activity that could be credited toward a healthy lifestyle and may have some direct impact on cognitive health.”

Previous research that has examined the relationship between physical activity and cognitive health typically looked at the long-term relationship, for example, over the course of decades for a retrospective study or months to a year for intervention studies. Hakun said that he was interested in connecting the dots sooner to understand the potential short-term impact of physical activity on cognitive health. Innovative Research Approach

The research team leveraged smartphone technology to interact with participants multiple times during their regular daily lives using a protocol called ecological momentary assessment. Over the course of nine days, participants checked in six times a day, approximately every 3.5 hours.

During each check-in, participants reported if they had been physically active since their last check-in. If they were active, they were asked to rate the intensity of their activity — light, moderate or vigorous. For example, walking and cleaning were considered light intensity while running, fast biking, and effortful hiking were considered vigorous intensity. Participants were then prompted to play two “brain games,” one designed to assess cognitive processing speed and the other designed to assess working memory, which Hakun said can be a proxy for executive function.

The team analyzed data from 204 participants who were recruited for the Multicultural Healthy Diet Study to Reduce Cognitive Decline & Alzheimer’s Risk . Data was collected during the study’s baseline period. Participants were between the ages of 40 and 65 and residents of the Bronx, NY who had no history of cognitive impairment. Half of the participants were Black or African American and 34% were Hispanic. Key Findings: Boosting Cognitive Processing Speed

The team found that when participants reported being physically active sometime in the previous 3.5 hours, they showed improvements in processing speed equivalent to being four years younger. While there were no observed improvements in working memory, the response time during the working memory task mirrored the improvements observed for processing speed.

“We get slower as we age, both physically and cognitively. The idea here is that we can momentarily counteract that through movement. It’s compelling,” Hakun said. “There’s the potential for a brief walk or a little extra movement to give you a boost.”

Additionally, people who reported being active more often experienced greater short-term benefits compared to those who reported less physical activity overall. Hakun said that it suggests that cognitive health benefits may increase with regular physical activity. However, he explained that more research is needed to understand how much physical activity and the frequency and timing of being active influences cognitive health.

Hakun says that future research may include pairing the ecological momentary assessment with activity monitoring tools to better track the association between observed physical activity, behavior, and cognitive outcomes. He also hopes to collect data over a longer period to see how everyday physical activity influences cognitive health over time compared to normal aging.

Reference: “Cognitive Health Benefits of Everyday Physical Activity in a Diverse Sample of Middle-Aged Adults” by Jonathan G Hakun, Lizbeth Benson, Tian Qiu, Daniel B Elbich, Mindy Katz, Pamela A Shaw, Martin J Sliwinski and Yasmin Mossavar-Rahmani, 19 October 2024, Annals of Behavioral Medicine .
DOI: 10.1093/abm/kaae059

Other Penn State authors on the paper include Daniel Elbich, data scientist; and Tian Qiu, doctoral student in epidemiology and public health sciences; and Martin Sliwinski, professor of human development and family studies. Other authors include Lizbeth Benson, research assistant professor at University of Michigan’s Institute for Social Research; Mindy Katz, senior associate in the department of neurology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine; Pamela Shaw, senior biostatistics investigator, Kaiser Permanente Washington Health Research Institute; and Yasmin Mossavar-Rahmani, professor of epidemiology & population health, Albert Einstein College of Medicine.

Funding from the National Institute on Aging of the National Institutes of Health supported this work.

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Making the gut healthy after a stroke reduces long-term effects on the brain DALL-E

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Injecting a natural hormone directly into the gut reduces the cognitive impairment that accompanies a stroke in the long term, according to a new study. The findings add to evidence that a healthy gut means a healthy brain and pave the way for a treatment that reduces the chronic after-effects of stroke.

What with the number of studies confirming it, it’s pretty much a given now: the gut and brain are linked, such that the health of one directly affects the health of the other.

Worldwide, one in four over 25s will have a stroke in their lifetime. The sudden symptoms indicating that someone’s had a stroke are well-recognized and are treated by intensive physical and occupational therapy. However, the long-term effects of stroke – cognitive impairment and depression resulting from damage to the brain’s cells or neurons, for example – can be harder to treat. But a new study by researchers at Texas A&M University has capitalized on the gut-brain link to protect the brain from the long-term ravages of stroke using a naturally occurring hormone.

“Stroke is one of the leading causes of dementia and AD [Alzheimer’s disease],” said Dr Farida Sohrabji, Head of the University’s Department of Neuroscience and Experimental Therapeutics and the study’s corresponding author. “While there are acute, immediate consequences of stroke, there are also these long-term consequences that affect quality of life for the patient as well as the caregivers, so there’s a lot of interest in understanding how to improve long-term outcomes.”

The researchers were concerned with the less obvious internal effects, what happens in the gut following a stroke, rather than the outward signs and symptoms. The classic signs of a stroke – but it also affects gut health “You have individuals who can’t lift their arms, whose faces droop on one side, their speech is slurred,” Sohrabji explained. “That’s classic and occurs very, very quickly. What we’ve found is that minutes after a stroke occurs, normal gut anatomy is completely disrupted.”

A stroke causes the intestinal wall, which ordinarily acts as a barrier between the gut and the rest of the body, to become leaky. Digestive bacteria can then pass out of the gut through the leaky wall and harm other bodily systems, including the brain. Even if the bacteria don’t reach the brain, they can trigger a body-wide inflammatory response that exacerbates the effect of the stroke, injuring the brain further and increasing the risk of long-term cognitive impairment.

“If you just repair the brain, you will see short-term effects but not long-term improvement because the gut is still leaky,” said Sohrabji. “It’s [causing inflammation] and constantly impacting brain function in the long term.”

This study built upon the researchers’ previous studies, which had shown that the hormone insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) reduced the level of inflammatory small proteins called cytokines in the area of the brain where stroke had occurred, but didn’t provide answers about IGF-1’s effect on cytokines circulating outside the brain. They gave rats with left-sided strokes either IGF-1 or a placebo four hours post-stroke for 48 hours. Afterwards, they tested their cognitive performance and sensory-motor functioning in addition to assessing their gut health.

The researchers found that the effect of IGF-1 treatment was dependent on its route of administration. Delivering it into a vein so that it traveled around in the bloodstream resulted in “robust neuroprotection” by way of a reduction in infarct size (the area starved of blood and oxygen because of the stroke) and improved sensory-motor performance in the short term, but no impact on cognitive impairment in the long term. However, delivering it directly to the gut produced the opposite effect: no improvement in acute outcomes but “robust amelioration” of chronic cognitive impairment.

When IGF-1 was delivered to the gut, it wasn’t detected in the brain, leading the researchers to hypothesize that it acted on the body’s peripheral immune organs, affecting what immune cells they produced, preventing brain degeneration that way.

“The current study strongly implicates the gut as a direct or intermediary target for long-term benefit for stroke outcomes,” the researchers said. “This study adds to the growing literature that recovery from acute neural injury is possible through improving gut health, and reciprocally, that gut health can impact neurological function.” Treatment with IGF-1 reduced the area that had been starved of blood, oxygen and nutrients because of the stroke In addition to their work with IGF-1, the researchers are investigating transplanting healthy intestinal stem cells into a gut that’s been damaged by stroke. Sohrabji was the corresponding author of a 2023 study investigating this as a novel treatment.

“We were fairly sure that [the stem cells] would repair the gut,” Sohrabji said. “What was not known, and what was a pleasant surprise to us, was that in the process, it also improved stroke outcomes. As a result of [the treatment], the amount of dead tissue in the brain as a result of stroke was reduced and cognitive function was preserved.”

The researchers will continue their work to develop a treatment that reduces the long-term cognitive effects patients experience following a stroke.

The study was published in the journal Brain, Behavior, and Immunity .

Source: Texas A&M University

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NREM sleep boosts cognitive performance by synchronizing brain activity during sleep and promoting independent neuron firing afterward. Researchers replicated these benefits with electrical stimulation, offering new potential for therapies and cognitive enhancement without sleep. Discovery hints at wide-ranging potential for enhancing brain function

Although it is widely recognized that sleep boosts cognitive performance, the neural mechanisms underlying this effect—especially those associated with non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep—are still not well understood.

A new study by a team of researchers at Rice University and Houston Methodist’s Center for Neural Systems Restoration and Weill Cornell Medical College, coordinated by Rice’s Valentin Dragoi, has nonetheless uncovered a key mechanism by which sleep enhances neuronal and behavioral performance, potentially changing our fundamental understanding of how sleep boosts brainpower.

The research, published in Science , reveals how NREM sleep — the lighter sleep one experiences when taking a nap, for example — fosters brain synchronization and enhances information encoding, shedding new light on this sleep stage. The researchers replicated these effects through invasive stimulation, suggesting promising possibilities for future neuromodulation therapies in humans. The implications of this discovery potentially pave the way for innovative treatments for sleep disorders and even methods to enhance cognitive and behavioral performance. Valentin Dragoi. Credit: Jeff Fitlow/Rice University The investigation involved an examination of the neural activity in multiple brain areas in macaques while the animals performed a visual discrimination task before and after a 30-minute period of NREM sleep. Using multielectrode arrays, the researchers recorded the activity of thousands of neurons across three brain areas: the primary and midlevel visual cortices and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, which are associated with visual processing and executive functions. To confirm that the macaques were in NREM sleep, researchers used polysomnography to monitor their brain and muscle activity alongside video analysis to ensure their eyes were closed and their bodies relaxed.

The findings demonstrated that sleep improved the animals’ performance in the visual task with enhanced accuracy in distinguishing rotated images. Importantly, this improvement was unique to those who actually fell asleep — the macaques that experienced quiet wakefulness without falling asleep did not show the same performance boost. Brain Synchronization and Desynchronization in Sleep

“During sleep, we observed an increase in low-frequency delta wave activity and synchronized firing among neurons across different cortical regions,” said first author Dr. Natasha Kharas, a former researcher in Dragoi’s lab and current resident in neurological surgery at Weill Cornell. “After sleep, however, neuronal activity became more desynchronized compared to before sleep, allowing neurons to fire more independently. This shift led to improved accuracy in information processing and performance in the visual tasks.” Natasha Kharas. Credit: Weill Cornell Medicine The researchers also simulated the neural effects of sleep through low-frequency electrical stimulation of the visual cortex. They applied a 4-Hz stimulation to mimic the delta frequency observed during NREM sleep while the animals were awake. This artificial stimulation reproduced the desynchronization effect seen after sleep and similarly enhanced the animals’ task performance, suggesting that specific patterns of electrical stimulation could potentially be used to emulate the cognitive benefits of sleep.

“This finding is significant because it suggests that some of the restorative and performance-enhancing effects of sleep might be achieved without the need for actual sleep,” said Dragoi, study co-author, professor of electrical and computer engineering at Rice, the Rosemary and Daniel J. Harrison III Presidential Distinguished Chair in Neuroprosthetics at Houston Methodist and professor of neuroscience at Weill Cornell. “The ability to reproduce sleeplike neural desynchronization in an awake state opens new possibilities for enhancing cognitive and perceptual performance in situations where sleep is not feasible — such as for individuals with sleep disorders or in extenuating circumstances such as space exploration.” Mechanisms Behind Sleep’s Cognitive Benefits

The researchers further investigated their findings by building a large neural network model. They found that during sleep, both excitatory and inhibitory connections in the brain become weaker, but they do so asymmetrically, making inhibitory connections weaker than excitatory connections, which causes an increase in excitation.

“We have uncovered a surprising solution that the brain employs after sleep whereby neural populations participating in the task reduce their level of synchrony after sleep despite receiving synchronizing inputs during sleep itself,” Dragoi said.

The idea that NREM sleep effectively “boosts” the brain in this way, and that this resetting can be mimicked artificially, offers the potential for developing therapeutic brain stimulation techniques to improve cognitive function and memory.

“Our study not only deepens our mechanistic understanding of sleep’s role in cognitive function but also breaks new ground by showing that specific patterns of brain stimulation could substitute for some benefits of sleep, pointing toward a future where we might boost brain function independently of sleep itself,” Dragoi said.

Reference: “NREM sleep improves behavioral performance by desynchronizing cortical circuits” by Natasha Kharas, Mircea I. Chelaru, Sarah Eagleman, Arun Parajuli and Valentin Dragoi, 21 November 2024, Science .
DOI: 10.1126/science.adr3339

This research was supported by National Eye Institute grants 5R01EY026156 (V.D.) and 5F31EY029993 (N.K.).

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